CRITICAL THINKING/REASONING PRESENTATION

MODULE 1

Objectives: This module will help the student

(i)   Understand what is critical thinking and its benefits. 

(ii)  Understand the barriers to critical thinking.

(iii) Learn the features of an argument.

       (iv) Get acquainted with social influences on critical thinking.

INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING

Critical thinking

Critical thinking is a rich concept that has been developing throughout the past 2500 years.  The term "critical thinking" has its roots in the mid-late 20th century.  Critical thinking is  self-guided, self-disciplined thinking which attempts to reason at the highest level of quality in a fair-minded way.  People who think critically and consistently, attempt to live rationally,  reasonably and empathically. The National Council For Excellence in Critical Thinking defines it as an intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying,  analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action.

Critical thinking enables us to analyse and evaluate information to identify justifiable  reason or evidence for doing something or for not doing something, justifications for believing something or for not believing something. Whenever we ask for reasons for any of our actions, we are thinking critically. Developing a questioning attitude is essential for a critical thinker which is self directed as well as directed towards others.

Benefits of critical thinking

The quality of our life and that of what we produce depends on our thought. Critical  thinking helps us to improve the quality and reliability of our thinking process, which in turn will result in a better way of living. The following are some of the major benefits of critical thinking

•      It helps us to become a wise person.

•      To come up with a judicious evaluation of events.

•      To develop a sense of intellectual integrity. 

•      To become accurate precise and clear.

•      To develop a relevant, deep, broad and logical attitude in understanding and handling   different situations.

•      To develop a special strength of mind, liberal and free from biases and prejudices.

•      To become a good decision maker.

•      To become rational.

•      To follow certain standards of reflective thinking.

•      To identify and to focus on the relevant aspects of an issue.

•      To become reasonable.

•      To act rationally rather than emotionally.

•      In academic matters it helps students to learn, evaluate and understand the subject matter in a more judicious way.

Barriers to Critical thinking    

1. Social brainwashing and our view of the world

                  An individual develops his understanding of the world from his own surroundings and from his society. There he comes under the influence of many factors like his parents, teachers, friends, as well as print and electronic media which are not always unbiased. Such  influences  prevent free thinking.   

2. Tendencies to think in binaries    

                The common human tendency is to judge everything in binaries, like good or bad,

just or unjust etc. Doing this often leads to bad theories.                                                                              

3. Fears regarding free thinking

                The fear of voicing a new opinion stems from the fear of making mistakes or of  making a fool of oneself.  This results in following the path of others, in spite of the  realisation that this is wrong. Many of our societies as well as our traditional educational  systems discourage free thinking. To overcome this a critic needs self-will to express what he thinks is right. 

4. Personal interests and personal experiences

                We often tend to judge  and evaluate ideas and situations based on our  social and emotional commitment, individual interest and past experiences. This prevents rational,  objective and critical analysis of issues.     

5. Pride and egocentrism (self-centered thinking)

               Many people consider themselves as the greatest and the most powerful of all the  others. They are egocentric and they consider themselves as the centre of the universe. Such people stick to their own perspective  and fail to appreciate alternate ways of looking at things.

6. Sociocentrism or ethnocentrism (group/society/cultural-centered thinking)

               Following the thought patterns common to a group, society or culture as well as thinking in favour of a particular group or community without judging its credibility is a barrier to critical thinking. 

7. Fear of change or an unwillingness to change

              Some people are afraid or unwilling to change their views which makes them  reluctant to conduct critical thinking.

8. Bias and prejudice

               Personal prejudices as well as biases create problems in thinking objectively and  critically 

9. Narrow-mindedness or close-mindedness

        We need an open and liberal state of mind ready to receive new ideas and to admit positive criticism to follow critical thinking.                      

10. Wishful thinking

             Tendency to think and believe what one wishes as true discourages a person from thinking critically.

11. Poor reading and comprehension skills, poor or dysfunctional communication skills

   Lack of proper reading, inability to understand as well as poor communication skills have an adverse effect on critical thinking.

Arguments

           In critical thinking we are trying to find out reasons or evidence for all our  activities. It is related to logic.   Hence arguments form the basis of critical thinking.  An argument is an attempt to persuade by giving good reasons. While arguing we are trying to provide supporting evidence or justification in support of what we do and what we believe.

Difference between argument and opinion

       An argument is always supported or backed by reason or evidence. It is an  attempt to give rational justifications for whatever we do or believe.  An argument is a  product of rational deliberation, whereas an opinion is not supported by evidence or reason.  It is just a passing comment on something.  For instance consider the following statements: 

1.    The new method of teaching is better than the previous one.

2.    The new method of teaching is better than the previous one because it helps       students to score better marks

 Here the first statement is an opinion since it is not supported by evidence to prove the statement. The second statement, on the other hand, is an argument because it is backed by  evidence to prove the claim. Most often, we form opinions after rational  deliberation and hence they are based on arguments. 

Recognising an argument/ Features of an argument

       Each argument is composed of premises (this is a term for statements that express your  reasons or evidence) that are arranged in the right way to support your conclusion (the main claim or interpretation you are offering). Following are the main features that will help you recognise an argument

•      An argument is a string of statements.

•      The statements are to be related.

•      The relation should be such that a few of the statements give support to one main statement.

•      The supporting statements are called premises.  They are the evidence or justifications given to support the major claim.

•      The major claim or supported statement is called conclusion.  The words ‘therefore’ ‘so’ are used for this.

For example: All  malayalees are highly educated. 

          Veena is a Malayalee.

                      So, she is highly educated.

In this example we have a group of related statements. The first two statements support the major claim that we want to prove. The first two statements are premises given in support of the final statement which is the conclusion.

You can make your arguments stronger by 

1.      Using good premises (ones you have good reason to believe are both true and relevant to the issue at hand),

2.      Making sure your premises provide good support for your conclusion (and not some other conclusion, or no conclusion at all), 

3.      Checking that you have addressed the most important or relevant aspects of the issue (that is, that your premises and conclusion focus on what is really important to the  issue you're arguing about), and 

4.      Not making claims that are so strong or sweeping that you can't really support them. 

Indicator words 

     A proper understanding of arguments depends upon the recognition of the premises and conclusions of an argument. Hence we use certain words in arguments to indicate premises and conclusions. There are different indicator words for premises and for conclusions.

Indicator words for premises:

•      Since

•      Because

•      For  etc

Indicator words for conclusions:

•      Therefore

•      Thus

•      So

•      Hence etc

Evaluating an argument

          We evaluate an argument based on two criteria. They are

1.      Logical content: Every argument is an attempt at establishing a claim on the basis of  other claims. The logical content of an argument refers to this logical structure of an  argument which makes it a good argument. It ensures the validity of an argument. In a  valid argument, true premises will lead to true conclusions. This is one of the most  important concepts of an argument.

2.      Truth content: Truth content makes an argument a sound argument. When we ask whether the evidence given in support of the conclusion is true, we are considering the truth content of an argument.

For example, consider the following argument

Amitabh Bachchan is the father of Abhishek Bachchan.

Karishma Kapoor is the wife of Abhishek Bachan.

So, Amithab Bachchan is the father-in-law of Karishma Kapoor.

This argument is a valid argument since it has all the features of an argument or the logical structure of an argument. This is a good argument, but not a sound argument since it lacks truth content. The premises given in support of the conclusion are not true. Hence this cannot be  accepted. Now consider another argument

Amithab Bachan is the father of Abhishek Bachan.

Aiswarya Rai is the wife of Abhishek Bachan.

So, Amithab Bachan is the father-in-law of Aiswarya Rai.

This is a sound argument since it has logical content as well as truth content.

Types of arguments

There are mainly two types of arguments. They are

•      Deductive argument: A deductive argument is ‘an inference in which it is asserted that the conclusion is guaranteed to be true if the premises are true.’ A deductive argument is an  argument such that the premises provide (or appear to provide) complete support for the  conclusion.

Premise 1: All American cats are domestic house cats. 

Premise 2: Bill is an American cat. 

Conclusion: So, Bill is a domestic house cat. 

•      Inductive argument: An inductive argument is an inference in which the conclusion has  only a high probability of being true if the premises are true. An inductive  argument is an argument such that the premises provide (or appear to provide) some degree of support (but less than complete support) for the conclusion.

Premise 1: Most American cats are domestic house cats. 

Premise 2: Bill is an American cat. 

Conclusion: So, Bill is a domestic house cat.

Fallacies

  A fallacy is, very generally, an error in reasoning. These are elements that show how we may go wrong in our arguments. Fallacies are statements that may sound reasonable or  superficially true but are actually flawed or dishonest. There are factual fallacies and logical  fallacies. A factual fallacy is one in which we go wrong about the facts. A logical fallacy is an "argument" in which the premises given for the conclusion do not provide the needed  degree of logical support. Logical fallacies can be classified as either formal or informal. A formal

fallacy is an error in logic that can be seen in the argument's form without an  understanding of the argument's content. Formal fallacies suffer from logical errors in the structure or in the form of the argument.  A formal fallacy can be detected by examining the logical form of the reasoning. An informal fallacy depends upon the content of the reasoning and possibly the purpose of the reasoning. There may be errors in the use of language that leads to informal  fallacies. It is important to avoid them in your own arguments, and it is also important to be able to spot them in others' arguments so that a false line of reasoning won't fool you. Informal fallacies are of the following kinds:

1.    Fallacy of Ambiguity: These errors occur with ambiguous or confusing words or  phrases, the meanings of which shift and change in the course of discussion. Fallacy of  ambiguity can be classified as follows:

•    Equivocation_: When we use the same word or phrase in different senses within one line of argument, we commit the fallacy of equivocation. This is a lexical  (related to the use of words) ambiguity. Consider this example: “Plato says the end of a thing is its perfection; I say that death is the end of life; hence, death is the  perfection of life.” Here the word end means "goal" in Plato's usage, but it means "last event" or "termination" in the second usage.

Example:  All heavy things have a great mass. 

Jim has a heavy heart.

Therefore Jim's heart has great mass.

In this example, ‘heavy’ has two different senses, weight and feeling sad.

•    Amphiboly: (from the Greek word "indeterminate"): This fallacy results from wrong grammatical construction. This is a syntactic(structural) ambiguity. For  example the position of the adverb "only" in a sentence starting with "He only said that" results in a sentence in which it is uncertain as to which of the other three words the speaker is trying to modify with the adverb ‘only’.

Example: Save water and waste paper.

In this example grammatical function of the word ‘waste’ (verb or adjective)  causes ambiguity.

Composition: The fallacy of composition is committed when a conclusion is drawn about a whole based on the features of its constituents without any  justification_. Here we attribute the features of the parts to the whole thing.   

Example: Sodium and Chloride are dangerous to human beings.

Therefore, its combination Sodium Chloride (salt) is also dangerous

•    Division:  The fallacy of division is committed when a person infers that what is true of a whole must also be true of its constituents without any justification. Here we attribute the features of the whole thing to its parts.

Example: Sodium chloride (table salt) may be safely eaten. 

Therefore its constituent elements, sodium and chloride, may be safely eaten. 

•    Emphasis: It occurs when we give incorrect emphasis to words in the premise to  conclude the desired conclusion. Here we shift the emphasis to ones own benefit.

Example: Mother: You spilled the coffee on the carpet.

Daughter: I spilled the coffee?

Mother: There you are. You admit it.

In this argument the mother is committing the fallacy of emphasis by shifting the  emphasis of the daughter’s statement, which was actually a question through which the daughter was trying to deny the charge against her. She took it not as a  question, but as a statement of agreement.

•    The Straw Man fallacy: It is committed when a person simply ignores a  person's actual position and substitutes a distorted, exaggerated or misrepresented  version of that position. It is an informal fallacy based on misrepresentation of an  opponent's position. 

Example: Person A claims: Sunny days are good.

Person B: If all days were sunny, we'd never have rain, and without rain, we'd have  famine and death. Therefore, you are wrong.

In this example, B has falsely framed A's claim to imply that A says that only  sunny days are good, and has argued against that assertion instead of the assertion A has made

•    Red herring:  This happens when a speaker attempts to divert the attention of an  audience by deviating from the topic at hand by introducing a separate argument  irrelevant to the topic under discussion, which the speaker believes will be easier to speak.

Example: We have to concentrate more on the current fashion trends, because global warming is threatening our existence.

In this argument, the speaker has introduced a different topic as his conclusion which has nothing to do with the main topic under discussion.

2.    Fallacy of Unwarranted Assumption: This occurs when we give premises that are not completely justifiable or conclusion that is not properly supported. This is classified under the following titles:

•    Begging the question: Begging the Question is a fallacy in which the premises  include the claim that the conclusion is true or (directly or indirectly) assume that the conclusion is true. It demonstrates a conclusion by means of premises that  assume that conclusion. 

Example: Tobacco chewing causes oral cancer, because there is a causal relation  between tobacco and cancer.

In this example, the premise assumes the conclusion.

•    Complex question:  This fallacy occurs when we ask a question based on a  hidden assumption which is not properly justified or proven.

Example: When a lawyer asks the witness “have you stopped lying?”, his question is based on his hidden belief that the witness used to lie which is not properly  proven.

•    Hasty Generalisation:  In this fallacy, we are making a generalisation based on one or two instances or basing a broad conclusion on a small sample. It argues from a special case to a general rule. 

Example : Every person I've met speaks English, so it must be true that all people  speak English.

In this argument, the conclusion that all people speak English is based on the experience of meeting a few people who speak English.

•    Biased sample: This fallacy is committed when a person draws a conclusion about a population based on a sample that is biased or prejudiced in some manner. Here we choose samples that are sure to conform to the conclusion we want to make. It has the following form: 

1. Sample S, which is biased, is taken from population P.  2. Conclusion C is drawn about Population P based on S. 

Example: A study taken in Kerala shows that they have high literacy rate among  women. Therefore, in India we have high literacy rate among women.

In this argument the sample taken is biased because it does not represent the entire  Indian women population.

•    Dicto Simpliciter (Unqualified generalisation): When we make a  generalization that disregards exceptions we are committing the fallacy of Dicto  Simpliciter. Here we are not qualifying the generalisation by excluding the  exceptions.

Example: Cutting people is a crime. Surgeons cut people's diaphragms. Therefore, surgeons are criminals.

This argument is fallacious because cutting people is only sometimes a crime, not  always.

False Cause: it happens when we consider something to be the cause of  something else when there are other real reasons to consider.

Example: Srinath lost his job because he forgot to fast on Tuesday.

This is a wrong argument because forgetting to fast is not a real cause for losing a job.

•    Coincidence: In this we are considering an accidental or coincidental connection  between two incidents as an evidence for a strict causal relation between the two.

Example: The Astrologer predicted that I will get a job when I am twenty five and that I will get married when I am twenty eight.

I got a job when I was twenty five.

So, I will get married when I am twenty eight.

•    Post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy (After this, therefore because of this): Suppose we notice that an event of kind A is followed in time by an event of kind B, and then we make the conclusion that A caused B. If so, we commit the post hoc fallacy. In this we are assuming that the event B occurred after the event A, therefore B occurred because of A.

Example:  This morning I forgot to take my umbrella.(event A)

There was heavy rain in the evening. (event B)

It rained today because I forgot to take my umbrella. (B occurred after A, Therefore B occurred because of A).

•    Common Cause Fallacy: It occurs when we take an event A to be the cause of the event B, when both A and B are the results of a common cause C. This fallacy is  committed when it is concluded that one thing causes another simply because they are regularly associated.  

Example: I had high temperature when I woke up in the morning (A).

Now I have rashes on my body (B).

Therefore temperature is the cause for the rashes.( but actually temperature and rashes Are the results of a viral infection(C).

•    Gambler’s fallacy:  This fallacy gets its name from the gambler’s belief that if a person has lost many games, he will win the next time. The Gambler's Fallacy is committed

when a person assumes that the repeated occurrence of an event that  departs from what is expected shows that it will be corrected soon. The form of the  fallacy is as follows: 

1.        X has happened. 

2.        X departs from what is expected to occur. 

Therefore, X will come to an end soon.

Example: I had applied for this job twice.

I was not selected.

So, this time I am going to get selected.

•    Slippery slope: This fallacy occurs when someone argues that the event Y will  inevitably follow if the event X occurs without any evidence to prove this inevitability.

Example. The university has decided to raise the examination fee.

If this happens , they will definitely raise the semester fee.

•    Fallacy of false dichotomy( false dilemma): It happens when two alternative statements are held to be the only possible options, when in reality there are more. Here we assume that _either the claim X is true or  the claim Y is true (when X and Y could both be false). This has the form:

1.        Claim Y is false. 

2.        Therefore claim X is true. 

Example: Either 1+1=4 or 1+1=12. 

It is not the case that 1+1=4. 

Therefore 1+1=12. 

3.        The Fallacy of Relevance: These fallacies appeal to evidence or examples that are not relevant to the argument at hand. When we give irrelevant details as premises we  commit the fallacy of relevance. Following are the different types of fallacies of relevance:

•    Argumentum ad verecundiam (Appeal to inappropriate authority): This  fallacy occurs when we take the words of a person lacking authority in a particular area as an evidence to accept a conclusion. An appeal to an improper authority, such as a famous person or a source that may not be reliable leads to this fallacy. For example, to cite Einstein to settle an argument about education or economics is fallacious. To cite Darwin, an authority on biology, on religious matters is fallacious.

Example: The moon is covered with dust because our student’s association president said so. 

Ad hominem: This means "against the man" or "against the person."An Ad Hominem is a general category of fallacies in which a claim or argument is rejected on the basis of some irrelevant fact about the person or because we are biased against the person  presenting the claim or argument even if he has the authority to present that claim. This is an exact mirror image of argumentum ad verecundiam.

Example: We should not accept what Max Muller said about India because he is a  foreigner.

•    Tu Quoque (look who’s talking fallacy): This fallacy is committed when it is  concluded that a person's claim is false because it is inconsistent with something else he has said or what a person says is inconsistent with her actions. This type of  "argument" has the following form: 

Person A makes claim X. 

Person B asserts that A's actions or past claims are inconsistent with the truth of claim X. 

Therefore X is false. 

Example: John says that smoking is bad for health.

But he is a chain smoker.

So, what he said is wrong.

•    Non sequitur: it means ‘does not follow’. When the conclusion does not naturally  follow from the premises we have non sequitur fallacy. All the formal fallacies are non sequitur fallacies.

Example: Nuclear disarmament is a risk.

But everything in life, like driving a car, involves a risk.  So, you should be willing to have nuclear disarmament.

•    Divine fallacy: This is a kind of non sequoitur fallacy in which we consider God as responsible for something which we cannot explain.

 

•    Argumentum ad Populum (appeal to emotion): This is an argument in which we try to persuade someone or make someone accept our conclusion by appealing to his emotions. In such arguments we are concerned with emotions, not with reason.

Example: You should buy me a mobile phone because it shows your love for me.

¾ Argumentum ad Misericordiam (appeal to pity): The appeal to pity takes place when an arguer tries to get people to accept a conclusion by making them feel sorry for someone. 

Example: "I know the exam is graded based on performance, but you should give me an A. My cat has been sick, my car broke down, and I've had a cold, so it was really hard for me to study!"

¾ Argumentum ad Baculum (appeal to Force): This argument uses force, the threat of force, or some other unpleasant methods to make the audience accept a conclusion. Example: You better give me this job or else you will get into trouble because I am the son of the local MLA.

¾ Argumentum ad Traditio (appeal to tradition): Appeal to Tradition is a fallacy that occurs when it is assumed that something is better or correct simply because it is older, traditional, or "always has been done." This sort of "reasoning" has the following form: 

X is old or traditional. 

Therefore X is correct or better.

Example: Sure I believe in God. People have believed in God for thousands of years so it seems clear that God exists.  After all, why else would the belief last so long?

¾ Argumentum ad ignoratiam (inference from ignorance): The fallacy of appeal to ignorance comes in two forms: (1) Not knowing that a certain statement is true is  taken to be a proof that it is false. (2) Not knowing that a statement is false is taken to be a proof that it is true.

Example: Nobody has ever proved to me there’s a God, so I know there is no God.

¾ Ignoratio Elenchi (irrelevant conclusion): It occurs when we give evidence that is not relevant to the conclusion that want to derive.

Example: If parents are working, they won’t be able to give care to their children.

So, mothers should stop working. 

Social Influences on Critical Thinking

 Social classes, gender and various social issues like inequality, dominant ideology,  discrimination etc influence the way an individual thinks critically. In a society, where repression prevails, its quite difficult for a person to come up with rational arguments. Argumentation in a political context requires freedom and equality where individuals can participate freely and  actively. According to the German sociologist and philosopher Habermas, in order to escape from certain notions regarding class and gender while thinking, three things need to be kept in mind. 

They are:

1.      First, at the logical level, one must come up with consistent arguments and avoid  contradicting one’s own arguments.

2.      Second, at the dialogical or procedural level every argument should be considered as a  hypothesis and try to analyse their validity and relevance objectively by keeping aside our personal perspective.

3.      Third, at the rhetoric or process level we must prevent repression and inequality.  Many  social discourses and traits may influence free objective thinking. 

Persuasive Discourses

 All human actions are motivated by personal dreams and desires.  We want to make the maximum use of a situation for personal benefit. We are prejudiced in our own favour.   Perssuasion or argumentative discourse also is at times used for this. There are mainly three types of persuasive discourses. They are:

1.      Deliberative: This attempts to persuade someone to do something which he would not do or to accept a claim which he would not accept. This is rooted in fear and is concerned with the future.

Example: If you do not submit your assignment, you will fail in your internal  assessment.

2.      Forensic: This is concerned with the past in which we seek to defend or condemn our  actions or beliefs.

Example: Caesar was not ambitious because he had refused the crown thrice.

3.      Ceremonial: here we celebrate or reject something related to the present.

Example: Kerala is the best tourist destination because it has a good weather.

Conformity

 Living in accordance with genuine universal standards of morality is different from  creating an illusion of moral standards. While conforming to such moral values one must be able to distinguish between false morality or religious conformity which appeal to the emotions for  genuine moral integrity.

Prejudices

 Bias and prejudice are natural human traits.  This leads to problems. This leads to problems in thinking rationally and objectively.  A good deal of prejudices are the products of our emotional activities. (A desire to get what one wants, fear, a natural wish to be accepted by friends and peer group and other similar emotions make us prejudiced). Instructional programmes aimed at  developing critical thinking skills will help a person in handling the problems of bias and  prejudice.  Present instructional programmes that develop thinking skills consider human mind as an empty container into which knowledge can be filled.  It concentrates only on the development of intellectual operations in the form of measurable performances. But the instructional  programmes based on critical thinking skills help a person to develop as a rational being capable of seeing things and understanding them critically. Critical thinking skills help in developing both the cognitive ( related to information processing and thinking) as well as the affective (related to the experience of a feeling or emotion) dimensions of personality as whereas thinking skills ignore the affective side. When it is not possible to be free from prejudices, one must be able to detect the presence of prejudices to become a better person.  Critical thinking helps in achieving this.

MODEL QUESTIONS

    I.      Objective Questions

1. When we ask for justifications, we are thinking

               a) critically                b) emotionally           c) foolishly                d) academically

Answer: Critically

2. Critical thinking is based on 

               a) emotion                 b) science                  c) reason                    d) philosophy

Answer: Reason

3……………is not a barrier to critical thinking

               a) egocentrism                                            b) thinking in binaries                       

c) self will to express ones arguments d) social influence Answer: self will to express ones arguments

4.  Since is an indicator word for ……………..

           Answer: Premise

5.  The supported statements of an argument is called

           Answer: conclusion

6.  Logical content ensures the……………… of an argument.

           Answer: Validity.

7.  Then truth of the conclusion is guaranteed in           

           a) argument                                                 b) deductive argument                      

           c) fallacies                                                   d) inductive argument

           Answer: deductive argument.

          8. When we go wrong factually in an argument ,we have……………..

           a) logical fallacies      b) ambiguity              c) factual fallacy        d) error

            Answer: Factual falacy            9…………..is a syntactic fallacy           Answer: amphiboly.

10.  Informal fallacies are classified into…………  

Answer: Three

11.  All the formal fallacies belong to the group of

              a) nonsequitar fallacy b) equivocation         c) persuasion              d) begging the question

Answer: Non sequitar fallacy

12. Deliberative persuasion is associated with the 

               a)past  b)future          c)present        d)infinity

Answer: future

Short answer questions 

1.      What is meant by critical thinking?

2.      How is egocentrism a barrier to critical thinking?

3.      What is an argument?

4.      What is the difference between argument and opinion?

5.      Define deductive argument?

6.      What is inductive argument?

7.      What are the measures used for evaluating an argument?

8.      What are the features of an argument?

9.      What are fallacies?

10.  What is meant by fallacy of ambiguity?

11.  What is amphiboly?

12.  Explain post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy.

13.  What is argumentum ad misericordiam?

14.  Explain forensic persuasion.

15.  What is the benefit of introducing instructional programmes based on critical thinking  skills?

16.  What are indicator words?

17.  What are premises and conclusions?

II.       Short paragraph

1.      Arguments

2.      Types of arguments

3.      Evaluation of arguments

4.      Fallacies

5.      Fallacy of ambiguity

6.      Fallacy of unwarranted assumption

7.      Fallacy of relevance

8.      Prejudice

9.      Different types of persuasions 

III.      Essay

1.      What is critical thinking? What are the benefits of critical thinking?

2.      What are the barriers to critical thinking?

3.      Write an essay on fallacies  

                           MODULE 2

Objectives:  This module will enable the student

(i)                To learn the language of critical thinking.

(ii)              Understand the characteristics of critical discourses.

LANGUAGE OF CRITICAL THINKING

Characteristics of Critical and Analytical Writing

 Standards of critical thinking are the measures based on which we asses whether a person’s thinking process is critical or not. Based on these benchmarks we judge the quality of a person’s thinking process. The following are the criteria for critical thinking:

¾ Clarity (Avoidance of vagueness)

              

The most essential feature of critical thinking is the ability to communicate, in speaking or in writing, what we think with clarity. Being clear is necessary for effective  communication. Vague or obscure expression of thought prevents proper communication. To attain clarity, we must have

•      A sense of the audience: An awareness of whom we are going to address helps us in  choosing the right language and the right method for communicating our ideas clearly

•      Context clarity: The context in which we present our topic is also a decisive factor in achieving clarity

•      Conceptual clarity:  This is one of the most important requirements in achieving clarity. Only when we are clear about what we are going to say, will we be able to present it  clearly.  So a proper understanding of the concept or the topic results in clarity.

            Clarity must be attained in two ways. First we must be clear about what we are going to say. Second we must use a suitable method so that we are able to communicate our ideas to our audience. To attain clarity

•      We must understand and present the topic clearly

•      We must be able to explain it.

•      We must be able to give examples and illustrate.

•      We must be able to see in advance the difficulties that our audience might have in understanding the topic.

•      We must be able to simplify our arguments by using different words (rephrase)

•      We must say only those things about which we are clear.

•      We must encourage questions, suggestions and discussion from audience.

Impediments to clarity

•      Accepting or believing things without thinking.

•      Lack of a sense of intellectual responsibility

•      Prejudice

•      Strong emotional influence

¾ Accuracy   

           

Being true to facts is being accurate. Accuracy is essential especially when we are dealing with quantitative judgments (related to quantity). Clarity and accuracy are related, but not the same. ‘Global warming results in weather change’ is a clear statement but not accurate. To attain accuracy this statement has to be supported by evidence, justifications and facts. To attain accuracy

•      We must judge and analyse the credibility and reliability of the source of information.

•      We must be open to doubt and be ready to change our beliefs if they are wrong.

•      We must stop believing in what we wish for as true.

•      We must examine the accuracy of our beliefs by comparing different sources of information.

•      We must be open to the doubts and suggestions of our audience.

•      We must give the necessary support and explanations for our arguments.

Impediments to accuracy

•      Lack of enough sources to compare and judge for accuracy.

•      Feeling comfortable with our old beliefs leading to unquestioning attitude.

•      Generalisations made on the basis of emotional influence.

•      Influence of culturally or socially held beliefs which are not supported by evidence.

•      Strong influence of print as well as electronic media.

¾ Precision

                 

            When we become more specific without leaving any minute relevant detail related to the claim, we achieve precision. Clarity, accuracy and precision are related. For  example, when a patient tells the Doctor that he is suffering from fever, his statement is clear. When he says that he has been suffering from fever for the last three days, his  statement is accurate. But when the doctor asks the patient to keep a temperature chart, he is demanding precision. Precision is relative and context sensitive. To attain precision

•      We must support our statements with as much details as possible.

•      Lack of specific details must be avoided.

•      We must be very careful while gathering details from different sources.

•      We must take help from our audience to locate places that need further explanation and  invite doubts and suggestions from them.

Impediments to precision

•      Lack of proper training or special skills needed to gather specific details.

•      Considering things as a whole that prevents us from going into the specific details.

¾ Relevance

            When writing or speaking critically, we must include only those details that are  relevant or important to the issue. To attain this we must understand that the things that are important for us may not be important for the topic. So we must be able to set aside our personal interest and concentrate on the topic. Also we must understand that in critical thinking what matters is not the quantity but the quality of our writing. It is a misconception that the more we write, the better we write. To attain relevance

•      We must always keep in mind our main topic and see how the details that we gather are  related to the main issue.

•      We must review our course of thinking.

•      We must list out all the main points and the sub points.

•      We must use summaries, outlines and concept maps. 

•      We must consider what our audience takes to be relevant to the issue.

Impediments to relevance

•      Our belief the more we write or the more we say, the better is our handling of the problem.

•      Our emotional attachment with certain aspects of the problem.

¾ Depth

            A detailed analysis of the underlying structures of an issue results in attaining depth. In critical thinking we must not stop our analysis with a superficial approach but we must go into the core of the problem. To attain depth

•      We must make a thorough analysis of the problem.

•      We must be prepared to face the complexities that arise while making such an analysis.

•      We must use our analytical ability.

Impediments to depth

•      Our feeling of comfort in simplicity.

•      Laziness which prevents us from the hardwork needed for attaining depth.

•      Fear of complexities. 

¾ Breadth

            When we consider all the relevant aspects and the  various perspectives of the  problem we attain breadth. To attain breadth

•      We must ask our audience to offer alternative approach on the issue being discussed.

•      We must be as exhaustive as possible

Preparing for Critical Writing.

          Identifying the audience is the first step after deciding on the topic.  

Selection of date from relevant sources 

            This is the second stage in preparing for critical writing in which we select the sources form where we gather information. This involves the knowledge of how to evaluate various sources of information. The important points to remember are

•      Whether the book or article is of general interest (usually not written by experts) or of scholarly interest (written on a particular topic by an expert on that topic).

•      Whether the book is biased or not. Always choose books that give reliable and objective  information.

•      The background of the author will give you an idea regarding the nature of the book.

•      The criteria of publication. Always choose books that are published under the guidance of an editorial board of experts.

•      Date of publication. Always choose recent publications if you want up-to-date information on a particular topic.

          The selection of relevant information for the topic under discussion is very important. While doing this we must not allow our personal interests or likes and dislikes to interfere with the process of selecting relevant topics. Also we must understand that what you write is more  important than how much you write. (Also see the topic Relevance).

Sequencing of arguments 

            The selected arguments are to be organized properly. This is called sequencing. There are mainly five parts for a critical discourse. They are

1        Introduction:  Introduction informs the audience of the topic of discussion in advance and ensures the cooperation of the audience. According to the topic we can choose various types of introductions such as 

a)      Introduction inquisitive: Introduces the topic through questions related to the topic

Example: “Does History repeat itself ?”

b)     Introduction paradoxical: Introduces the topic by using contradictory statements related to the topic arousing the curiosity of the audience.

Example: “As I type this highly civilised men are flying above me, trying to kill me.”

c)      Introduction corrective: it introduces the topic by correcting the wrong notions regarding that topic.

Example: “The peanut is, infact, a fruit.” 

d)     Introduction preparatory: This is an unusual mode of developing the topic. 

Example: “Beginnings are apt to be shadowy, and so is it with the beginning of that great mother of life, the sea.”

e)      Introduction narrative: This is how we introduce a story or an anecdote. Example: “Once upon a time there lived a king.”

2        Statement of fact: This tells the audience of the circumstances needed for understanding the topic. This must be simple, short and easy to understand.

3        Confirmation: This is the main part of the critical writing in which the main argument is presented and proven. In confirmation, the arguments must be arranged in the increasing order of their strength, otherwise it will have a weakening effect.

4        Refutation: Here we try to break the arguments that are against the argument that we want to establish. If an opposite argument is received well before we present our argument, it is better to present refutation before confirmation.

5        Conclusion: According to Aristotle, a conclusion must

1.   Restate facts and arguments: We must present our main arguments and the supporting facts in the conclusion.

2.   Amplify the force of one’s arguments and diminish the force of one’s opponents: We must try to present our arguments with added strength and weaken the opponents  arguments so that our claim is accepted by the audience.

3.   Inspire through one’s character (ethos)

4.   Rouse appropriate emotions (pathos): At the end of our discourse we must be able to arouse appropriate emotions in our readers or listeners. This emotional appeal is the strongest part of a conclusion

Sign Posting 

            Sign posting is the use of indicator words to recognise the premises and the conclusion of an argument. These indicator words are also known as signposts.  For example, ‘since’, ‘because’, ‘for’ etc are signposts for premises.  ‘Therefore’, ‘thus’, ‘so’, ‘hence’, ‘then’, ‘implies’ etc are signposts for conclusions.

Writing Conventions

A writing convention is a general agreement on or acceptance of a particular writing practice. Writing conventions include spelling, punctuation, capitalization, grammar, and paragraphing. We can define conventions as a set of generally accepted standards for written English. We use  conventions to make our writing more readable. Conventions include spelling, punctuation,  capitalization, grammar, and sentence structure. Students should:

•      Apply spelling rules correctly.

•      Use correct punctuation to smoothly guide the reader through the paper.

•      Use verb tenses correctly.

•      Write sentences that express complete thoughts.

•      Demonstrate paragraph organization and use smooth transitions.

•      Capitalisation should be used correctly.

In addition, each kind of writing has its own conventions. For instance:

1.       Narrative writing must have characters, setting, and plot.

2.       Descriptive writing must appeal to the senses through use of vivid, colorful, precise  vocabulary.

3.       Expository writing must inform, clarify, explain, define, or instruct.

4.       Persuasive writing must present an argument based on facts and logic, and attempt to sway the reader’s opinion.

MODEL QUESTIONS

I.     Objective questions

1.  Proper organisation of relevant points in a critical discourse is called Answer: Sequencing

2.  In a critical discourse, the main argument is presented and proven in

a) Confirmation             b)introduction             c) refutation   Answer: Confirmation 3. Confirmation should present the arguments in the	d) conclusion
a) descending order of strength                    b) one after another            c) ascending order of strength                     d) as main points             Answer: ascending order of strength 4.  Scholarly articles are always written by……………..people.            Answer: Expert people. 5.  Sign posting involves the use of
a) premise                 b) indicator words      c) conclusion             Answer: Indicator words 6. …………….. is not a standared of critical writing	d) articles
a) vagueness              b) clarity                    c) precision       Answer: vagueness.	d) relevance

II.              Short answer questions

1.       What is meant by the standards of critical thinking?

2.       What are the important characteristics of critical thinking?

3.       What is accuracy?

4.       What is the purpose of introduction?

5.       Which are the parts of a critical discourse?

6.       What is statement of fact?

7.       What should a conclusion do?

8.       What is sign posting?

9.       What is the importance of confirmation?

10.   What is the difference between scholarly articles and general interest articles?

III.           Short paragraph

1.       Writing Conventions

2.       Introduction

3.       Sequencing of arguments

4.       Relevance

5.       Reading for critical writing

IV.           Essay

1.       Write an essay on the standards of critical thinking.

MODULE 3

Module 3

Objectives:  This module will help the student

(i)                To learn how to use various resources for critical writing.

(ii)              Equip herself with precise academic writing skill.

A -  RESOURCES

Academic writing

 Academic writing is research based writing meant for a group of readers looking for fact based, objective information on a particular topic. It is usually based on a thesis, which is the main idea or the main perspective of a chosen topic.

 Researching resources for writing

   Before selecting the resources we must identify our topic or our thesis as well as the  audience for whom we are writing. Information can be collected from various sources such as people, magazines or the internet. Research resources can be classified as follows:

1.      Interviews: An interview is a prearranged meeting with a person in which particular questions are asked on a topic to gather first-hand information on that topic.

2.      Print sources: This includes magazines, periodicals, news papers, books, pamphlets,  Encyclopedias, dictionaries etc.  A good library is the best place to locate all these print sources. Encyclopedias provide information on various topics. Based on your topic you can choose either a general encyclopedia like Encyclopedia Britannica or a specialised encyclopedia like the Encyclopedia of Psychology or the Encyclopedia of Science.

                             Indexes to periodicals are another important print source in which you get a list or articles organized by subject and author. The Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature is a reference guide to recently published articles in periodical magazines and scholarly journals, organized by article subject. The Readers' Guide has been published regularly since 1901 by The H. W. Wilson Company. Specialised indexes are also there like Humanities and Social Science Index. These are also available in soft copies, kept on microfilms. A microfilm is one on which printed works are copied in smaller size for easy storage.

3.      Electronic sources: We can access information from electronic sources such as T.V, computers, internet etc. There are a number of computerized databases that provide information on a  number of topics. A database is an organized collection of data for one or more purposes, usually in digital form There are two online database versions of Reader's Guide available from H. W. Wilson Company: Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature which covers 1983 to the present and Readers' Guide Retrospective: 1890-1982.

Using Net sources

  While using Net sources, we must evaluate the credibility and the reliability of these sources. While most books are published by recognized publishers after careful scrutiny by  experts, internet or website resources are mostly published without proper editing or review. So, while using Net sources, we must consider the following:

•      Credibility:

         We must see whether the information is provided by a trustworthy source or an author and what is the author’s credentials. Always depend on an authoritative source, a source that supplies some good evidence that allows you to trust it.

•      Accuracy:

Whether the information is up to date, factual, detailed, exact and comprehensive.  Choose  a source that is correct today (not yesterday), a source that gives the whole truth.

•      Reasonableness:

Whether the information is  fair, balanced, objective and reasoned without conflict of  interest or fallacies. Choose a source that engages the subject thoughtfully and reasonably,  concerned with the truth.

•      Support:

  Whether the listed sources are properly supported by contact information, proven claims and documentation. Always choose a source that provides convincing evidence for the claims made, a source for which you can find out at least two other supporting sources. 

Using the library

The library provides a convenient place to work and an atmosphere that encourages study. In addition it provides you with up-to-date books, magazines, periodicals and other sources on your subject.

School and college libraries vary tremendously in terms of the stock they hold. It may be  necessary, therefore, to use your local public central library for research or, depending on where you live, the academic library of a local university. By getting to know the library you intend to use the most, you will:

•                Feel more at home there

•                Be able to locate the books you want

•                Be able to settle quickly to your work Finding the book you want

1.       On your first visit ask how the system works  o Does it operate on a card index system or is it computerised? o Do not be too proud to seek help especially if the computer programme used is unfamiliar; a lot of time can be wasted in front of a screen.

2.       Books will be divided into sections and then arranged in numerical order on the shelves

3.       Cataloguing of books is done in three main ways o The Subject Index tells you where to look in the library but doesn't list books e.g. Economics 330 o The Author Catalogue tells you the book number if you know the author, e.g. 

Anderton, A.G. 330.2 o The Classified Catalogue tells you what the book is if you know the number e.g. 330.2 Economics Anderton, A.G. 

While using the library, you must

•      Have a goal to achieve.

•      Base your target on the time available to you - 30 minutes or all afternoon.

•      Do not be too ambitious, it is better to complete a shorter task than to leave the library frustrated.

•      Try to find a work place that you are happy with, it may be sensible to sit close to your subject section.

•      Avoid sitting with friends, arrange to meet them at a specified time later for a break and chat.

•      Get into the habit of using the library early on in your course. 

Reading for Writing

  Academic writing demands active and alert reading which will make you better writers. The following are some of the strategies for active reading:

1.      Preview the reading: preview the reading means having a quick look at the different parts of the book. In this we are not reading the entire text or article in detail, but we are just going through the contents of the book to get a general idea of the book or the article.

2.      Use dictionary definitions and contextual definitions: the use of a good dictionary will help to increase the understanding of the book. You can use the dictionary to look up the meaning of unfamiliar words. If you don’t have a dictionary, or if you have no time to use a dictionary, you can try to understand the meaning of a word from the context in which it is used. If you know  the meaning of the words that come before and after the unfamiliar word, you can easily find out the meaning of the unfamiliar word from the context. 

3.      Annotate the text:  While reading, annotate the text by underlining or highlighting the  important points. Annotating the text can be done by

a)      Underlining important parts

b)     Asking questions

c)      Adding definitions

d)     Making notes in the margins

e)      Expressing agreement or disagreement with the author.

4.      Summarize: after reading try to write a summary of what you have read. A good summary shows better understanding of the text. A summary is an abridged (short) version of  the main points of the text in your own words.

5.      Use critical thinking to evaluate: After reading use your critical thinking skills to evaluate what you have read. Try reading between the lines to understand what is said indirectly in the text.

MODEL QUESTIONS

I. Objective questions

1.      Underlining the important parts of a text while reading is called………….. Ans: Annotating the text.

2.      ……………….is a reference guide to the recently published articles in periodicals Ans: Readers Guide to Periodical Literature.

3.      The main idea or the main perspective of a research is called…………. Ans: Thesis.

4.      Academic writing aims at providing……………kind of information Ans: Objective and fact based information.

II. Short Answer Questions.

1.      What is academic writing?

2.      What is the purpose of previewing the reading?

3.      What is a summary?

4.      What is meant by annotating the text?

III. Short Paragraph.

1.      Which are the important sources used in research?

2.      How do we use net sources?

3.      How do we use the library?

IV. Essay

1. Write an essay on the various strategies for active reading.

B   THE WRITING PROCESS

Background to writing

 Writing is a process because it involves clear steps, starting with the development of a  concept to expanding on the basic idea to revising and polishing the final piece.

Evaluating a Text

 Before using any material for writing, you must evaluate the text by considering the  following aspects

1.      Whether the information gathered is relevant to the topic of research.

2.      If the topic of your research depends on recent information, see whether the information you got is current or up-to-date.

3.      Whether the text provides objective and right information on the various aspects of the topic without being biased or prejudiced.

4.      Whether it is reliable.

5.      Whether the information is detailed proven and convincing enough for an academic audience.

Recording the data

 In academic writing it is important that you record and give your readers the exact source of your information. Therefore you must always cite the source of information. Using resources without revealing or acknowledging the source is called plagiarism. This is against the copyright or intellectual property rights. To record the source of  your data from printed sources you need the following details:

• The author or editor of the book

• Title of the book

• Name of the magazine or journal

• Place of publication

• Publisher

• Date of publication

• Volume number

• Exact page or pages where the information is found For electronic sources, you need

• Author name if available

• Title of the article

• Date and location of original publication if published in print

• Date of electronic publication

• Page, paragraph, or section numbers if available

• URL(Uniform resource locator) enclosed in angle brackets

Note Taking

After selecting the sources and recording the basic information regarding those sources, you can start taking notes from those sources for your writing. Note taking can be done in three ways. They are:

1)     Summary: This way of note taking is useful when you want to get only the main points of the source. While writing summary, you write only the main points in your own words without repeating the words or expressions used in the original source. The  following are the strategies for summary note taking • Note the title of the book and the author’s name.

•       Write the summary of the entire text  in your own words.

•       Write the main points in the order in which they appear in the source in your own words.

•       Maintain objectivity throughout.

•       Do not make any personal comment or judgment on any of the author’s ideas.

•       A summary is not an evaluation or critique. So don’t use expressions like ‘I think’, ‘in my opinion’, etc.

•       Make the summary short.

•       Do not plagiarize. Never repeat the author’s words or expressions in your summary.

2)     Paraphrase: This form of note making is useful when you want to communicate all the ideas given in the original source with specific facts and details. When paraphrasing you rewrite the entire information in your own words without  reducing the content.

While doing this

•       You must acknowledge the original source.

•       You can quote words from the original text only when it uses technical terms with no synonyms (words with similar meaning).

•       Otherwise, always use your own words.

•       Reproduce the ideas in the order in which it is given in the original text.

•       Never change or destroy the meaning of the original text while paraphrasing.

3)     Direct quote: Direct quote is useful when it is important to use the author’s own words in your note. Direct quote refers to the use of the exact words of a source without  omissions, changes or additions. While doing this

•       The quoted part must be set off from the rest using quotation marks.

Example: “Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings and emotions  recollected in tranquility.”

•       While omitting irrelevant words, this must be indicated using ellipsis points.  (three periods or full stops with space before and after each period to indicate that some words are omitted from the original source. If the omission is made at the end of a sentence use four ellipsis points.)

Example: ‘Poetry is [. . .] emotions recollected in tranquility.’

•       If you add your own words in quotation, enclose them in square brackets.

Example: ‘Poetry [according to Wordsworth] is the spontaneous overflow of  powerful feelings and emotions recollected in tranquility.’

•       Never use direct quotes as thesis headings or as the main point of a paragraph.

Sandwich quote: while using a quotation in your essay, you must introduce the speaker of the quoted words as well as his authority concerning the subject. After this write the quotation and  before proceeding to the next material, explain or analyse the quoted material. This is called  sandwich quote.

Understanding and Selecting Key points

 Writing involves different steps. It begins with selecting a topic, developing a concept based on that topic, writing the first draft, revising, rewriting and ends with polishing the final draft. Hence it can be referred to as a process. While writing you must keep in mind the key points which will help you in proceeding on the right path. They are

1.      Purpose: Any kind of writing aims at achieving a special purpose or objective. While addressing a group of audience through your writing, you must be clear about the  purpose of writing. It may be to

•      Express: you want your opinion to reach the audience.

•      Inform: you want to inform or let your readers know something.

•      Persuade: you want to present an argument to persuade or make your readers accept something

2.      Focus: While writing, you must be very clear about where to focus. You must know, which aspect of your writing must be given emphasis and choose your sources  accordingly.

3.      Material: This refers to the content of your writing like facts, arguments, details,  evidence etc. this material can be taken from different sources like your personal  experience, observation or research.

4.      Structure: Structure refers to the way in which you organize your material to support and establish your argument clearly.

5.      Style: this involves three aspects:

•      The way in which you organize words and sentences in your writing.

•      The correctness of your writing, that is you must proofread your writing to see whether you have used the correct spelling, correct grammar and sentence structure as well as the correct punctuation

•      Using the correct format of writing like margin, tabs, spacing etc.. Different pieces of writing have different formats and appearances. (Eg: formal letter appears  different from informal letter). The general lay out of your final draft including name, title placement, margins and page numbers is known as manuscript format.  

The most common format is: double space the essay on 8.5by 11- inch white bond paper, set 1-inch margins on the top, bottom, and on the sides of the page, indent the paragraphs, centre align the title and put your name, class and other details on the upper right corner.

Developing plans from titles

In academic writing or while writing a thesis, we have to develop a plan from the title  regarding the nature of our writing. This is called thesis statement or the purpose of our writing. It contains the main point that the writer is going to develop in the essay.  It helps the readers to  understand the main focus of the essay. The following are the main feature of an effective essay or  thesis title.

1.      It states the subject of the essay clearly.

2.      It includes a controlling idea about the subject.

3.      It uses a specific language and clear words.

4.      It establishes a tone appropriate for the subject and the audience.

Organizing paragraphs

 An essay has three parts: introduction, body paragraphs and conclusion. Introduction  informs the readers of the thesis and gives some basic information about the topic. Body  paragraphs explain the various aspects of the thesis in different paragraphs.  You put an end to your writing by arriving at a conclusion.

Introduction

Characteristics of introduction:  An introduction that catches the attention of the readers and guides them smoothly into the subject is essential for the success of your writing. An effective  introduction has the following features

•      It captures the attention of the readers through the use of catchy language and expressions.

•      It guides the readers into the subject by giving them a proper idea about the essay.

•      It sets the tone for the entire essay.

•      It states or moves towards the essay instead of deviating from the topic.

Strategies for writing introduction:

1.      Hook your audience: use an introduction that will catch the attention of the readers by  giving them reasons to read the entire essay. There are some introductory strategies that will help to catch the attention of the readers. They are 

•      Background information: give some background information about the topic as  introduction so that the readers are curious to learn more about the topic.

•      Question: Ask a few provocative questions on the topic as introduction so that they will also start participating in the thinking process by trying to answer those questions.

•      Story or incident (anecdotes): Narrating stories or real life incidents that are related to the topic or that will help in introducing the topic will definitely catch the attention of your readers. But when doing so, make it very short because your purpose is not to tell stories.

•      Statistics, fact, or statement: use some shocking fact or statistics related to the topic as the introduction.

•      Quotation: use an interesting quotation related to the topic or from the source that you are using for your writing.  While doing so remember to cite the source of your quotation. You can also use generally known proverbs or sayings to introduce your topic.

•      Definition: if your topic is an unfamiliar one for the readers, begin by explaining or  defining the confusing terms so that it is easy for the readers to follow what you are saying.

•      Examples or details: you can introduce your topic by giving a lot of interesting examples or details regarding the topic.

2.      Introduce the subject: While trying to capture the attention of the readers through the  introduction you should not forget to introduce your subject.

3.      Establish a voice and tone: an effective introduction should establish the voice and tone of the essay. Voice refers to the personality of the author and the way in which this personality influences his writing. Tone refers to the writer’s attitude towards the topic (whether he is serious about what he is saying, or is he trying to be funny etc).

4.      State the thesis: the introduction should also state the thesis or the main aspect of the  chosen topic that you are going to write about in your essay. 

Body paragraphs

Characteristics of body paragraph:  Body paragraphs vary in length, purpose and style based on the point you elaborate in that paragraph.

•      One body paragraph makes one main point.

•      It uses various supportive evidence to develop the point.

•      It must have a clear organizational plan.

•      Materials that are not related to the point explained in a paragraph should not be used.

•      Use accurate and precise language.

•      Each body paragraph should move smoothly from one point to the other logically following the previous paragraph in style.

Strategies for writing body paragraphs

1.      Use topic sentence: Each body paragraph deals with a main point related to the topic. Hence each body paragraph should have a topic sentence stating the point discussed in that paragraph. A topic sentence is the sentence of a body paragraph stating the main idea  discussed in that paragraph. This is the controlling idea of a body paragraph.

2.      Signal shift in thought: every change in the thought process has to be indicated using cue words. Cue words or transition words are the words or phrases that allow the readers to anticipate what is to come in the body paragraphs of an essay. This helps the readers to follow the essay more easily.  

•      Cue words  used to indicate change in time:

Then

Finally

Suddenly

In the past

Presently

Eventually etc

•      Cue words used to indicate order, progression,or a series of steps

First, second, third etc 

Next

 Another

Besides

Moreover

Last

Further

Not only……….. but also

Also etc

•      Cue words to indicate contrast or change

In contrast

On the other hand

In spite of

But

Despite

Yet

Regardless

On the contrary

 Although

Nevertheless etc

•      Cue words to indicate comparison or similarity

Similarly

Likewise

Just as

As well

As equally important

In comparison etc

•      Cue words for explanation or elaboration

For example

To explain

For instance

To illustrate

In particular

To expand on this etc

•      Cue words to indicate emphasis or stress

Basically

Truly

Essentially

Moreover

Without doubt

Above all etc

Cue words to show cause-effect relation

Because

Thus

Consequently

As a result

Accordingly etc

• Cue words to indicate conclusion

Finally

In brief

In conclusion

To summarize

All things considered etc

3.      Avoid the unclear ‘this’ and ‘it’: while using the pronoun ‘this’ to substitute a noun, use it with a noun to avoid confusion. For example, in the sentence ‘she placed her notebook on the table. It toppled to the ground.’ the use of ‘it’ creates confusion regarding what toppled down, the book or the table.

Solution: She placed the book on the table. The book toppled down.

4.      Repeat important words: To place emphasis on the main point of the body paragraph,  repeat the important words and phrases. If possible, use substitute words with the same meaning while repeating the main point.

5.      Use parallel sentence structure: Using parallel sentence structure, that is, the repetition of a sentence pattern is a good strategy to link similar ideas. 

Example: He always wanted to continue his education. He wanted get a good job. He wanted to look after his family.

Conclusion

Characteristics of conclusion

1.      It forms the reader’s last impression of the essay.

2.      Conclusion must convey a sense of completion.

3.      Never introduce any new topic or argument in the conclusion.

4.      Tie all the main points of the essay together in the conclusion.

Strategies for Writing Conclusion

1.      Offer closure: Use certain words or phrases that tell the readers that the essay is ending.

2.      Frame the essay: An effective conclusion should bring together the main points of the  essay. To write an effective conclusion, use any of the following techniques:

•      Summary: When your essay is longer than three type written pages, or if it deals with complex or technical matters, conclude the essay by giving a summary of the main points.

•      Recommendation: You can frame an effective conclusion by giving certain recommendations to the readers related to the topic. For example, an essay on the effects of smoking can be concluded with some recommendations on how to stop smoking.

•      Prediction or warning: Through predictions or warnings you can make an effective conclusion to your essay. For example, an essay on children and their use of internet could end like this

     If parents do not monitor what their children are viewing, it will lead to more  irresponsible and mindless violence in our society.

•      Call to action: Calling the readers to action is a good concluding strategy, since it will inspire the readers to get involved by doing something about a problem.

•      Reference to introductory strategy: An interesting method of conclusion is to relate it with the introduction, thereby tying the end to the beginning.

3.      Avoid pitfalls: while concluding, avoid the following errors

•      New material: Do not introduce any new point in the conclusion.

•      Apology: Making apologies in the conclusion will weaken the effect of your  essayu. So, never use expressions like, ‘I may be wrong’, ‘I don’t know everything’ etc.

•      Moralizing: Never conclude your essay with a moral or lesson to be learned. Revising and Polishing the Essay

Strategies for revising the essay:

1.      Allow time for reflection: After completing the first draft, never think that you have  completed the work. Instead read it again and try to make it perfect.

2.      Use audience response: Ask your friends, parents or teachers to go through your paper and say what they think about the essay.

3.      Rethink  the draft: Based on the suggestions from your readers, you can think again and make some suitable changes in the draft.

4.      Add to the draft: You can add any important points, further clarifications or explanations to your essay.

5.      Edit: Edit the essay by deleting those points that are irrelevant.

6.      Make substitutions: You can replace an irrelevant word, phrase or sentence with a  relevant one.

7.      Rearrange material: Restructure or reorganize the essay during revising.  It will result in a more logical flow of ideas.

Strategies for Polishing: Before writing the final draft, polish the essay after revising using the following strategies.

1.      Re-read the revised draft

2.      Use various tools like the computer spell checker, dictionary etc to improve the weak points in writing such as spelling and grammar.

3.      Use peer editing and instructor response to see whether the problems they detected during revising the essay are solved.

4.      Trim and clarify by reading the essay word by word to add necessary words and clarifications and to remove unnecessary items.

5.      Eliminate wordiness by avoiding the use of a lot of unnecessary words. For example the sentence ‘a new library is necessary for the school’ can be rewritten as ‘ The school needs a new library.’

6.      Insert cue words to indicate a shift in the thought process.

7.      Proof reading: To read or correct a piece of writing or printer’s proof before presenting it to the readers is called proof reading. While proof reading, attention must be given to punctuation and to the writing mechanics. 

MODEL QUESTIONS

    I.      Objective questions

1.      Cue words are used to indicate……………

Ans: Shifts in thoughts.

2.      To note down only the important points while reading, we use ………….method Ans: Summary.

3.      To communicate all the ideas given in the original text to the readers use ……………. ….

method of note taking. Ans: paraphrase.

4.      Proof reading gives attention to……………… Ans: punctuations and the writing mechanics.

II.       Short Questions.

1.      What is plagiarism?

2.      What is meant by direct quote?

3.      What are ellipsis points?

4.      What is meant by sandwich quote?

5.      What are the important purposes of academic writing?

6.      What are the three important aspects involved in style?

7.      What are the main features of a thesis title?

8.      What are cue words?

9.      What is proof reading?

III.      Short paragraph

1.      What are the points to be considered while evaluating a text?

2.      What are the details needed for recording print as well as electronic sources?

3.      Summary

4.      Paraphrase

5.      Direct quote

6.      Key points for writing

7.      Introduction

8.      Body paragraph

9.      Conclusion

10.  Cue words

11.  What are the strategies for revising and polishing the essay?

12.  Strategies for note taking

IV.      Essay

1.      Write an essay on the different parts of an essay?

2.      What are the strategies for writing introductions, body paragraph and conclusion?

3.      What are the preparatory steps involved in the writing of an essay?

C   THE ELEMENTS OF WRITING 

Punctuation:  Punctuation is one of the most basic elements of writing that helps in conveying the idea properly. It helps the readers to understand what the writer wants to communicate. The  following are the important punctuations used in writing

1.      Comma(,): Commas are usually used to separate items in a list. Eg: she wanted to buy some rice, vegetables, milk and egg. 

•      It is used:  To separate two independent clauses connected by a coordinating  conjunction such as ‘for’, ‘and’, ‘nor’, ‘but’, ‘or’, yet and ‘so’ (FANBOYS).  Place to comma before the conjunction.

Eg: I want to go out, and meet my friend.

•      After introductory words or phrases to set off the introductory word.

Eg: Walking with his father, the boy thought about his school.

•      Before and after any non-restrictive word, phrase or clause which are not essential to the meaning of the sentence;

Eg: My wife, Reema, is coming today. (The non-restrictive word ‘Reema’ is not essential to the meaning of the sentence. If it was restrictive, that is essential for the meaning of the sentence, do not use commas.)

•      Between adjectives that modify the same noun.

Eg: She is a smart, intelligent girl.

•      To set off a noun of direct address from the rest of the sentence. Eg: Sheena, please open the window.

•      While using quotations, insert comma after the introductory words. Eg: He said, “ this is a strange thing.”

•      Do not use commas with short quoted words like, he called his brother a ‘genius’.

•      With dates and place names. Eg:  January15, 2011

2.      Semicolons (;):  This is used to 

•      Separate two independent clauses that are closely related but are not joined by conjunctions. Eg: The weather was bad; it caused many inconveniences.

•      When items in a series have commas within them, semicolons are used to separate  different items.

Eg: you will have a reading test, based on a topic; a written test, which will be of one hour duration; and an oral test.

•      To separate independent clauses when the second one begins with adverbs like however, nevertheless and therefore.

Eg: This task is very difficult to accomplish; therefore, you will have to work hard.

3.      Colons (:):

•      To introduce a list.

Eg: she called out the following names: Raji, Robert, Sreya and Nimmi.

•      Colon is not used with ‘to be’ verbs.

Eg:  The book’s defects are:  its loose plot, its length and its improbable ending.  (Do not put colon after ‘are’)

•      To introduce a direct quote when the introductory words form a complete statement. Eg:  The product has the following warning on the bottle: “Harmful if inhaled.”

•      To introduce a word, phrase, or a clause that explains or summarizes the     first part of the sentence.

Eg:  She went for the interview with a single thought in her mind: to get that job.

4.      End punctuation:

A)    Period/ full stop (.): this is used to end a sentence. It is also used with some abbreviations (B.Sc.).

B)     Question mark (?): this is used after a direct question.  A question mark appears inside the quotation if it forms part of the quotation.

Eg: what is your name?

He asked, “what is your name?”

C)     Exclamation mark (!): it is used in case of highly emotional language to               show surprise or extreme happiness.   Eg: Watch out for the elephant!

5.      Apostrophes (’): 

•      This is used in contractions, words in which letters have been omitted. Eg: can’t, don’t etc

•      Do not use it while showing possession.

Eg: the cat licked its paw. (no apostrophe after t in ‘its’)

•      To form the possessive form of a noun use an apostrophe and ‘s’ to singular nouns whether or not they end in ‘s’. add only an apostrophe to plural nouns ending in ‘s’.

Eg: Reena’s book.       Men’s rest room.

      Waitress’s house

      Students’ day celebration.

•      It is not used with possessive pronouns.

Eg: the new car is hers.

6.      Quotation marks (“ ”) (‘’): 

•      Single quotes are used to indicate to set off some ones exact words. Eg : He said, ‘please pass the butter.’

•      Quotation marks around a word is used to indicate that the word is used in an  unusual sense.

•      Names of articles, poems and chapters are included in quotation marks.

•      Double quotation, marks are used for quotes within quotes.

Eg: Satish argues that ‘the very notion of “modular” western nationalism is thrown open to doubt.’

6. Hyphens (-):

•      Used to form compound adjectives that come before nouns. Eg: well-constructed

•      Used in spelled out numbers and fractions.  Eg: twenty-three, one-third

•      Used to form compound words.  Eg: non-violence

•      Used to divide a word at the end of a line to break the word. Never break a one  syllabled word.

7.      Dashes: there are two types of dashes, em dash, which is longer and en dash which is shorter than an em dash but longer than a hyphen. Em dash is used

•      To show a sudden break in thought. 

•      To set off information that is less important than the rest of the information but too important to enclose in brackets.

•      An en dash is used

To indicate ‘to’ or through’ within a range of numbers.

8.      Parentheses ( ): this is used to

•      Set off comments that are less important than the rest of the sentence or that which provides additional information. Eg: Please call me (004672348) when you come back.

•      When a complete sentence is enclosed within the parantheses, full stop, question mark and exclamation mark  go inside the parantheses.

9.      Brackets( [ ]): it is used

•      to enclose explanatory comments within a direct quote. Eg:  the commentator reported, ‘He [the president] denied all charges.’

•      Use brackets with the word ‘sic’ to indicate a spelling or grammatical mistake made by the speaker while using direct quote. Eg: he said, ‘I am very [sic] consentious.’

10.  Ellipsis points (. . .): ellipses or three evenly spaced periods indicate that some part of the material has been left out. This is used within brackets. Eg: Wordsworth said, ‘Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings […] recollected in tranquility.’

•      If words are omitted at the end of the quoted material use four instead of three ellipses points.

•      For non-quoted material, use ellipses marks without brackets to show a thought that is interrupted or incomplete.

Writing Mechanics: The smaller details of writing such as the use of capital letters, italics, abbreviations, numbers etc are referred to as the writing mechanics or style.

Capitalization:

•      Capitalize the first letter of the first word of every sentence.

•      Capitalize all proper nouns like place names, product names or names of people, days of week, month and holidays, adjectives formed from proper nouns etc.

•      Capitalize the titles of books, stories, poems, novels, articles etc as well as the names of companies, various institutions etc.

Numbers:

•      Use numbers for dates, page numbers, street numbers, telephone numbers, measurements and hours of the day or night when used with A.M or P.M. Eg; 2 A.M.

•      Use numbers rather than words for numbers of three  or more words. Eg: 346 people got killed in the attack.

•      Use numbers if a sentence contains several numbers. Eg: the basket contains 3 apples, 40 mangoes and 6 oranges.

•      Use number if a sentence begins with a number.

Referring verbs:

      These are the words used to summarise what the other author has said, argued, concluded, proved and so on. The most common patterns of using referring verbs are 

•      Referring verb + that + noun clause(subject + verb).  Eg: Sudhir concluded that ……

Common verbs following this pattern are admit, agree, argue, acknowledge, assume,  assert,  believe, claim, conclude, consider, decide, deny, determine, discover, doubt, emphasise, explain, find, imply, infer, note, reveal, suggest, think etc.

•      Referring verb + something/somebody + for + noun clause/gerund. Eg; Pandey faults Misra for uniform sampling.

Common verbs following this pattern are applaud, blame, censure, commend, criticize, fault, thank, praise, ridicule etc.

•      Referring verb + somebody/something + as + noun/gerund/adjective. Eg: Govind portrays his research figures as authentic.

Common verbs following this pattern are appraise, assess, characterize, classify, define, depict, describe, evaluate, identify, interpret, portray, present, refer, view etc.

Methods to Develop an Essay:

 Different topics demand different style of writing. The following are a few formats or  patterns for writing essays.  You have to decide and choose which pattern suits your needs.

¾  Narration: Narration is a format suitable for recounting an event or a series of events  having public or academic importance. In narration, we describe the events in chronological order (in the order in which it occurred) specifying the details regarding place, time as well as the people involved. Before starting narration, decide the purpose of describing an event so that you can choose the relevant details as well as give some background information for the readers to follow the narration in a better way.

¾  Cause and Effect: When you want to describe the way in which you plan to do something, why you are doing that and what you expect as a result, you can use process and cause and effect style of writing. Process refers to the way in which you are going to do something (how you are doing it), cause refers to the reason for doing that (why) and, effect refers to the result (what). Based on your topic you can choose either the process style (if you want to say how a procedure is performed) or the cause effect style if you want to show the  connection between why you did something and what results from it.  Eg: Cause and effect form of writing shows the relationship between two situations. eg: Too much rain leads to flooding.

¾  Comparison and classification : This style of writing is used when your purpose of writing is to: 

1.      Organize information.

2.      Clear understanding.

3.      Making choices and

4.      Highlight qualities of a subject in more detail.

If you want to choose one item from a list of similar objects, you can use                comparisons/contrast style to decide which is the best one. For instance, when you want to buy a car, you compare and contrast the features of all cars available in market to choose the one that suits you.

¾  Description and Definition: This style of writing is used when you want to clearly  communicate your observations about something to your audience.  Though both are based on observation, these differ in certain ways.

	Description			Definition
•	Uses all the details that an			Uses only the essential details
	individual can observe using  his senses- see, smell, feel			or characteristics of the object.
•	Description is a detailed			Definition is a statement of the
	explanation regarding all the			exact nature of a subject, or the
	features of an object. It is   usually long.			distinguishing features only.

Characteristics of descriptions:

1.      It focuses on observable objects.

2.      It uses sensory details.

3.      It relates the details in a particular order suitable for the reader to understand, using cue words to indicate transition from one detail to the next.

4.      Description conveys two kinds of information

a)      The factual information related to the subject. Here the purpose is to  communicate the facts related to the subject objectively.

b)     Dominant impression of the subject. This is subjective information regarding  the feelings and impressions created by the subjects rather than the factual  information.

¾  Discussion or argument: When trying to persuade an audience to accept your views on a controversial issue, you can use discussion or argumentative writing. While using this, use controlled and reasonable expression and analyse all the aspects of the issue. This style of writing is appropriate for the subjects which are 

a)      Debatable  

b)     Which can be supported by evidence

c)      The arguments that are against the topic can be refuted

d)     Has logical appeal.

While writing an argumentative essay, you can use the following types of evidences.

1)     Facts -  information held to be true.

2)     Statistics – a list of numerical facts

3)     Expert testimony – Statement by experts

4)     Charts, graphs,tables etc. to provide numerical information.

5)     Examples, illustrations or models.

6)     Personal interviews.

7)     First hand experience. 8) Observation.

The following topics are not suitable for argumentative writing.

1)     Facts : data regarded as true.

2)     Preferences : Personal likes or dislikes.

3)     Beliefs : Ideas that each individual consider as true.

4)     Impossibilities : Situations that are not possible in the real world.

Thus subject or opinions that can be debated or having more than one side or stands,  especially topics of public concern can be used for argumentative writing.

Elements of effective writing Cohesion

 Every piece of writing is intended to convey some idea to the readers. To do this successfully, your writing must be cohisive ie. clear, readable and comprehensible with sentences linking  logically together, forming a unified whole as a paragraph. To attain cohesion, you must solve the following issues.

1)     Fragmentation: A fragment is an incomplete sentence. A sentence which doesn’t convey a complete meaning. To make a sentence complete, it must have a subject and a verb and should convey an independent meaning. For example, the sentence ‘had fever yesterday’ is incomplete or fragmented since it has no subject. You can solve the problem by adding a subject. ‘Ravi had fever yesterday.’

2)     Run - ons and  comma splices : When two or more sentences are written together without any punctuation in between them we have a run-on.

 Eg : She is a smart girl she got first rank.

A common splice is two or more sentences linked by commas instead of using periods or full stops.

Eg : She is a smart girl, got first rank in her school, went for higher studies.                                               

Five methods to solve run-ons and comma splices.  

1.  Use periods or full stops. Begin the sentence after period (full stop).  Use capital letters      after the period.  

    Eg:  Reema is a smart girl. She got the first rank in school. 

2.  Use semi colon to break a long sentence:  

        Eg: A boy came forward to present the paper; he was encouraged by his friends and     teachers.

3.  Use a comma and coordinating conjunction: for, and, nor, but, or,  yet, so. (conjunction      is used to join two independent clauses. While using coordinating conjunctions, use     comma before the conjunctions.)

         Eg:  Reema is a smart girl, and she got first rank.

4.  Use a subordinating conjunction such as after, although, because, before, if, since, when,     where, while etc. 

    Eg: When I returned home from work last night, someone had already made dinner.

5.  Use a relative pronoun such as that, which, who, whose etc.

    Eg: This is an interesting book which deals with the topic of global warming.

3)     Faulty parallelism: Expression of similar thoughts in different ways in a sentence results in faulty parallelism.

      Eg : The marathon went along the avenue, over the bridge and into the park.

4).  Mixed construction: when you fail to relate your thinking process properly with your writing,       you make mixed constructions. 

      Eg: I wondered was she the right girl for me. (I wondered if she was the right girl for me.) 

Synonyms:

           These are words having the same or almost the same meaning as another word. This can be used in academic writing to avoid repetition of the same words and thereby to make your writing interesting. 

Introduce, initiate, implement, launch etc. are synonyms.

Eg:  The government introduced the new policy.  The newly initiated policy was a success. Writing with visuals:

Visuals help us to convey ideas more quickly and more effectively. Pictures, tables, maps, graphs, pie chart, flow charts, and diagrams are commonly used visuals in writing.

Figures and tables: These are used to summarise information. 

Pie chart :Used to show properties or relative percentage. 

Graph: To show the relationship between two variables. 

Bar diagrams: To show and to summarize comprehensive data. 

Map : To show location.

MODEL QUESTIONS

    I.      Objective questions

1.      ……………helps a reader to understand the writer’s idea properly Ans: Punctuation.

2.      …………punctuation is used to form compound adjectives that come before nouns Ans: Dashes

3.      To write about the purpose and result of doing something …………style of writing is used.

Ans: Cause and effect.

4.      ………..style is used for organising information.

Ans: Comparison and contrast.

II.       Short Questions

1.      Which are the important end punctuations?

2.      Which are the two types of dashes?

3.      What is meant by writing mechanics?

4.      What are referring verbs?

5.      What is meant by cohesion?

6.      What is fragmentation?

7.      What is meant by faulty parallelism?

III.      Short Paragraph

1.      End punctuations.

2.      Capitalization

3.      Narration

4.      Cause and effect

5.      Difference between description and definition

6.      How to solve the problems of run-ons and comma splices

7.      Cohesion

8.      Writing with visuals

IV.      Essay

1.      Punctuations.

2.      Methods to develop an essay.

3.      Writing mechanics.

4.      Different styles of writing an essay.

MODULE 4

A - ACCURACY IN WRITING

Module 4

Objectives:  This module will help the student

(i)                To practice accuracy in writing.

(ii)              Get acquainted with different writing models

Abbreviations:  Abbreviations are the shortened versions of words and expressions widely used in

English to increase convenience and to save time. The following are the main types of abbreviations;

1.      Shortened words:  This method is also known as clipping. In this one or more syllables of a word are omitted to form the short form which later becomes the common vocabulary.

Examples: Phone from telephone.

                  Bus from omnibus.

                  Taxi from taximeter-cabriolet.

                                        Fridge from refrigerator.

2.      Acronyms: These are words formed from the initial letters of words. Unlike the  shortened words, these acronyms do not usually replace the original word. In academic writing always use the original word when mentioning it for the first time with the acronym in parentheses. Eg: National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD). In some cases the acronyms are pronounced not as a single word but as individual letters as in IBM for International Business Machines Such acronyms are called alphabetisms  . Other examples are

                                        USA        -        United States of America.

                                        NDTV      -        NEW Delhi Telivision.

                                        UN          -        United Nations.

UNESCO  -     United Nations Educational, Social, Cultural                                    Organization.

3.      Others: Another category of abbreviations are the shortened latin phrases like N.B ( nota bene meaning ‘ note well’ or ‘note’), i.e (id est meaning ‘that is’) and etc.  (et cetera meaning ‘and the rest’).

Sometimes a single acronym will represent more than one expression. Eg: STD stands for ‘Subscriber Trunk calling’, ‘Sexually Transmitted Diseases’ and ‘standard’.

Some common business abbreviations:

CEO	Chief Executive Officer
GDP	Gross Domestic Product
VP	Vice President
MNC	Multi National Corporations
WTO	World Trade Organization
IMF	International Monetary Fund
BPO	Business Process Outsourcing
CSR	Corporate Social Responsibility

Abbreviations used in academic writing:

Cf.	compare
e.g.	For example
et.al.	and others (used to cite names of multiple authors)
Fig.	figure(for labelling charts and graphs)
Ibid.	in the same place( to refer to a source mentioned immediately before)
i.e.	that is
op.cit.	‘opus citatum’/opere citato’ meaning the work cited.
p.a.	yearly
pp.	pages
re	with reference to
Ph.D.	Doctor of philosophy.
M.Phil.	Master of Philosophy
ff.	the referred page number and a few pages ahead.

Adverbs: An adverb is that which adds quality to the verb. It can also modify an adjective or another adverb. For example  

She wrote beautifully.( beautifully is the adverb describing the manner of writing) 

She is a really good dancer.( really modifies the adjective good)

An adverb usually provides information regarding

1.      The manner in which something is done/takes place (she spoke clearly).

2.      The time of an action ( He died recently.)

3.      The degree to which the effect of an action is felt( it rained considerably.)

In academic writing, adverbs are used

1.      To introduce a new thought or add more details to previous point.

2.      To reflect variations of time and manner.

In English, many words form their adverbs by adding  -ly after the word. Eg: quickly, slowly, beautifully etc. but words like very, fast, hard, too, up, down, well, late etc. do not take –ly to form their adverbs.

Exercise

1.      The number of women MPs has increased ……………..across the country. ( significant) Ans: Significantly

2.      He tried………….to find a job and ………..got one (hard, eventually) Ans: hard, eventually

3.      He entered the room…………(quiet) Ans: quietly

4.      Do you…………..feel nervous (usual) Ans: usually

Articles:  In English, we use articles before nouns. There are two types of articles in English,  definite article and indefinite article.

Definite Article: ‘The’ is the definite article used in English. It is called definite article because it is used with a definite noun, i.e. the noun with which the listener or reader is familiar with. It is used 

1. Before nouns of which there is only one which are considered as one. Eg: the earth, the sun  2. Before nouns which have become definite as a result of being mentioned a second time. Eg: His car struck on a tree. You can still see the mark on the tree.

3.      Before a noun which, by reason of locality can represent only one. Eg: she is in the garden.

4.      Before a superlative. Eg; she is the tallest girl in the class.

5.      Before a singular noun used to represent a class of objects. Eg: The cockoo is lazy.

6.      Before the names of seas, rivers, chains of mountains, groups of islands, plural names of countries, names of musical instruments etc. Eg: the Atlantic, the flute, the USA

Indefinite Article: ‘a’ and ‘an’ are the indefinite articles in English. ‘a’ is used before nouns beginning with a consonant sound or a vowel sound like a consonant. Eg: a man, a university. ‘an’ is used before words beginning with a vowel sound or with a mute ‘h’. eg: an hour;  an egg. It is used

1.      Before a singular noun which is countable, when it is mentioned for the first time and represents no particular person or thing. Eg: a girl is standing there.

2.      Before a singular countable noun when it is used as an example of a class of things. 

Eg: A palm tree is usually very tall.

3.      In certain numerical expressions like a couple, a dozen etc.

4.      In exclamations before single countable nouns. Eg: What a hot day!

It is incorrect to use ‘a’ and ‘an’ with plural or countable nouns.  Eg: a papers is wrong usage.

Exercise

1.      Is there a market nearby?

2.      I bought a new pen. The pen writes well.

3.      A peacock was seen in the park.

4.      The project reports are in the drawer.

Caution: While writing academically, you must be very careful or cautious in the use of words and expressions. In academic writing, we are often trying to find out answers for various issues. There are problems for which there is no completely right or completely wrong answers. For some problems, it will be possible to give more than one explanation. In such cases always use a  cautious style of writing that allows you to give alternative solutions instead of reaching at simplistic or wrong conclusions. For example the sentence ‘lack of proper education leads people to crime;’ is an incorrect statement since the lack of education is not the only reason for people committing crime. This statement can be re-written with caution as ‘lack of proper education is one of the reasons for leading people to crime.’ Or as ‘ lack of proper education often leads people to crime.’ The following words can be used for cautious style of writing:

•      Verbs: tend, appear, seem, indicate, suggest, think etc.

•      Modal verbs: may, might, could, would, must etc.

•      Modal adverbs: probably, possibly, perhaps etc.

•      Causes: it may be said, it may be inferred, it might be suggested, the study indicates that etc.

Conjunction: These are words that link or join words, phrases or clauses. There are three types of conjunctions. They are:

1.      Coordinating conjunctions:  these are used to combine words, phrases, clauses or  sentences of equal importance or status. This process of combining words, phrases or clauses using coordinating conjunction is called coordination and the sentences thus  combined are called compound sentences (a combination of two independent parts). The important coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so etc. (together they can be written as ‘FANBOYS’).

 Eg: Bread and butter.

 He worked hard, so he passed.

 It was not very easy to do, but he managed to do.

2.      Correlative conjunctions: The conjunctions that are used in pairs are called correlative conjunctions. They are either/or, neither/nor, not only/but also, both/and etc.   Eg: He is neither a poet nor a painter.

3.      Subordinating conjunctions: these conjunctions are used to connect dependent clauses with independent clauses. This process is called subordination and the sentences thus  combined are called complex sentences. The important subordinating conjunctions are  because, when, if, although, since, that, unless, as, in order to, so as to, so that etc.

Functions of conjunctions:

1.      As word connectors. Eg: John and Jack are friends.

2.      As phrase connectors. Eg: All his activities and his character makes him popular.

3.      As sentence connectors. Eg:  They are playing and we are watching.

When combining more than two words, phrases or clauses using a conjunction commas are used with the earlier ones and use the conjunction with the last one.

Formality in verbs: In academic writing it is always better to use formal verbs or words to  provide a formal tone to the writing. For example,  the sentence ‘ The SSA was established to improve access to primary education.’ is preferred in academic writing to the sentence ‘The SSA was set up to improve access to primary education.’ because  of the use of the formal verb ‘establish’. Also single verbs are preferred to prepositional verbs in academic writing. 

 Eg: The process should be done again and again to achieve the desired results.

This sentence can be re written as ‘The process should be done repeatedly to achieve the desired results.’

Modal verbs: Modal auxiliaries or modal verbs are words that express the mood or the attitude of the speaker. These are different from auxiliary or helping verbs (is, are, was, were, has, have, had, does, do did etc.) which help the main verb by conveying additional information like the number or tense. Modal verbs express ability, necessity, advisability, possibility, and probability. The modals in English are can, could, will, would, may, might, must, shall, should, ought to, have to, used to, supposed to, dare, need etc.

Modals conveying ability: ‘Can’ is used to convey ability in the present and ‘could conveys  ability in the past. By adding ‘not’ to this modal we can make it negative.

                       He can sing.

                       I could sing when I was young.

Modals conveying necessity:  ‘have to’ and ‘must’ is used to express necessity.

                      You must go there.

                      She has to appear for the test.

‘must’ is not used to express necessity in the past , instead use ‘had to’                         She had to appear for the test last week.

Modals conveying advisability: ‘should’ and ‘ought to’ convey regret for not taking good advice. ‘had better’ conveys warning or threat and ‘need to’ express strong advice.

                      You should meet him tomorrow.

                      You ought to have met him yesterday.

                     You had better see him before he leaves.

You need to meet him today itself.

Modals conveying possibility: may, might, could.

                      It may rain today.

                      We could reach there by 10 AM

To express possibility in the past use may/might/could + have + past participle of the verb.

                      I could have studied yesterday.

Modals conveying probability: must is used to convey probability or a well informed guess.

                     She must be the person I am looking for.

Modals conveying preferences: would rather. (would rather + have + past participle of the verb to show past preferences.)

                      We would rather study today itself.

Modals conveying plan or obligation: supposed to, should, ought to.

                      I was supposed to meet them.

Modals conveying past habit: used to.

                      I used to live in kozhikode.

Exercise          

1.      You …………..called yesterday.( ought have, ought to have) Ought to have

2.      Judging by the size of the puddle outside, it …….(must be, must have rained, should)all night along. Must have rained.

Nationality Language: People living in different nation are known by different names and they  speak different languages.

Country		Language		Nationality		People
Italy		Italian		Italian		Italians
Hungary		Hungarian		Hungarian		Hungarians
Korea		Korean		Korean		Koreans
Russia		Russian		Russian		Russians
China		Chinese		Chinese		Chinese
Japan		Japanese		Japanese		Japanese
Portugal		Portuguese		Portuguese		Portuguese
France		French		French		French
Greece		Greek		Greek		Greek
Britain		English		British		British
Denmark		Danish		Danish		Danes
Finland		Finnish		Finnish		Finns
Poland		Polish		Polish		poles
Spain		Spanish		Spanish		Spaniards
Sweden		Swedish		Swedish		Swedes
Turkey		Turkish		Turkish		Turks
Germany		German		German		Germans
Mexico		Spanish		Mexican		Mexicans
The United States		English		American		Americans
Australia		English		Australian		Australians
Brazil		Portuguese		Brazilian		Brazilians
Egypt                Holland/		Arabic		Egyptian		Egyptians
The Netherlands		Dutch		Dutch		Dutch
New Zealand		New Zealand		English		New Zealanders

Nouns: A noun can be defined as the name of a person, place or thing. Some words function as nouns as well as adjectives in different contexts.

Eg: This bottle is made of plastic. (the word ‘plastic’ functions as a noun here)

      This is a plastic bottle. (Here ‘plastic is an adjective describing the noun ‘bottle’.)

Adjectives: Adjectives are words that refer to the qualities of people, things or ideas, or group them into classes. These are words that modify or describe a noun. When an adjective is used  before the noun it describes it modifies that noun and is called attributive. Eg: a blue flower. (the word ‘blue’ is the adjective modifying the noun flower.) . Some adjectives are used after the noun as complements, completing the meaning of the sentence and is called predicative. Eg; The test was positive.

Countable nouns: Countable nouns refer to people, places or things that can be counted. They can be made plural, usually by adding‘s’ or any other plural endings. Eg; Student-Students,  Child-Children. Some words have the same form for singular and plural. Eg: deer, sheep.

Uncountable nouns: Uncountable nouns are those which cannot be counted like food,  beverages, substances or abstract nouns such as feelings, emotions etc. Eg: sugar, air, biology etc. So the uncountable nouns can be converted to countable nouns by adding a count frame like two litres of milk, a bar of soap, a loaf of bread, an item of furniture etc.

 Some nouns can function as countable as well as uncountable nouns. For example the noun ‘experience’ is uncountable when it refers to the skill gained by observing or doing something. But it becomes countable when it refers to particular instance or instances pf participation. (experience, experiences).

Eg:       Food and drink: beef, beer, milk, oil, tea etc.

          Non-food substances: air, cement, wood, ice etc.

          Abstract nouns: advice, anger, beauty, poverty etc.

          Others: biology, clothing, traffic, news etc.

Passives: The same idea can be expressed in two different ways using active voice and passive voice. Active voice means the subject is carrying out the action. This is the more natural and  common way of writing in which the subject (the person thing performing the action) is given  importance.

Eg: The police took three suspects.

 Passive voice is usually used for giving emphasis to the person or thing acted upon (object) rather than the subject. It is stronger than the active voice and is preferred in academic writing to avoid the excessive use of ‘I’ or ‘we’. The passive voice is possible only when the verb is transitive, i.e. when the verb takes an object.

Eg:  Three suspects were taken by the police.  Passive voice is used

•      When the subject is unknown. Eg: the murderer will be hanged.

•      When the action is more important than the performer.  Eg: The house was struck by lightning.

•      For stylistic variation.

•      To emphasise the result than the cause.

Exercise: Change into passive: 

1.      I verified my results thoroughly- My results were verified thoroughly by me.

2.      I write a letter- A letter is written by me.

3.      I am doing her home work - Her homework is being done by me.

4.      I have completed my work - My work has been completed by me.

5.      He constructed a new house- A new house was constructed by him.

6.      The child was playing a funny game- A funny game was being played by the child.

7.      She had finished her work- Her work had been finished.

Prefixes: Prefixes are part of a word that comes before the base or the root word. They add to or alter the meaning of the base word, but do not change the part of speech of the root word.  Eg: market- supermarket.

•      Prefixes like un-, in-, dis- are negative prefixes giving negative meaning to the words to which they are attached. Eg: likely-unlikely, possible-impossible etc.

•      Prefixes like pre- and post- add the sense of before and after. Eg: pre-independence,  post-colonial etc.

•      Prefixes like micro-, macro- convey the sense of big or small. Eg; macro Economics.

•      Other common prefixes are under-, over-, multi-, ex-,re-,co-, sub-, auto-, anti-, fore - etc.

Suffixes: suffixes are attached at the end of the words. They are of two types, inflectional suffixes and derivational suffixes.

•      Inflectional suffixes do not form new words.Eg: boy- Boys. • Derivational suffixes form new words or change the part of speech of a word.  Eg: Happy- Happily, Child-Childhood, Act- Action (Verb to noun).

•      They add to the positive oe the negative meanings of the words. Eg: Hope + ful = Hopeful, Hope + less + Hopeless.

Exercise:

1.      He ……………his friend.(estimate) Underestimated

2.      Recent researches show that……………..is the cause of rise in crime.( employ) unemployment

3.      One has to pay higher tax on a…………property.(commerce) Commercial

4.      The changes are …………. (manage). Manageable.

Prepositions: A preposition is used to modify the meaning of words . the word preposition is a combination of two words, pre + position. It used with a noun, pronoun, a nominal or a syntactic construction to express its relation with the other words of the sentence like the verb.  Eg: He came at five.( ‘at’ expresses the time relation of the noun with the verb.)

          He is standing between John and Reena. ( ‘between shows position relation)

Prepositions used with some verbs

Be accustomed to		be interested in
Be acquainted with		be known for
Be composed of		be disappointed with
Be concerned about		be married to
Be divorced from		be discriminated against
Be tired of		be pleased with
be located in		be made of(or from)
Be excited about		`

Exercise

1.      He is fond of music.

2.      He is about to go.

3.      Success depends on how you work.

4.      The earth goes round the sun.

Preposition after verb: Also known as phrasal verbs (verb+ preposition, break into) are widely used in spoken and written English. In academic writing it is better to use formal verbs. Exercise

Fill up with suitable verbs and prepositions:

1.      College expenses in the USA start to add up before you enroll.

2.      The research will be carried out in three phases.

3.      This department specializes in Chemistry.

4.      The people need a government they can rely on.

Relative Pronouns: The pronoun that takes on the function of a connective word or combine clauses in a restrictive sense, continuative sense or in some other sense are called relative pronouns. These are also called conjunctive pronouns since they combine clauses and they are subordinators.

Eg: This is the boy who has stolen my pen. In this sentence two clauses are combined using the relative pronoun ‘who’ in a restrictive sense, that is , the  ‘boy’ is being defined by the clause  following the relative pronoun ‘who’(I am talking about that particular boy who has stolen my pen). Hence we have a complex sentence. Now consider the example ‘Jack, who is an engineer, has built this bridge.’ This sentence can be re written as ‘Jack is an Engineer and he has built this bridge’. Here we have two independent clauses combined by ‘who’ in the continuative sense. Hence we have a compound sentence and we use commas to separate the clauses. The important relative pronouns are who, whose, whom, that and their forms.

Tenses: There are mainly three basic verb tenses, present (enjoy/enjoys) past(enjoyed) and future(will enjoy).

Present tense: In the present tense, most verbs take –s or –es endings for third person singular and no endings for first person singular and plural forms.

Eg: I play She plays.

They play.

Forms of verb ‘be’:-

	Singular			plural
First person:	I am			They are
Second person:	You are			You are
Third person  Forms of do:	He/She/it is			They are
First person:	I do			They do
Second person:	You do			You do
Third person  Forms of have:	He/She/it does			They do
First person :	I have			They have
Second person:	You have			You have
Third person	He/She/it has			They have

Past tense: In the past tense verbs fall in to two categories, regular verbs which have-d or –ed endings in the past tense( kick-kicked, walk-walked) and irregular verbs which do not take –d or – ed endings in the past tense( go-went, write-wrote). 

Form of have: In the past the form of have is had.

Form of do: did Forms of  Be:
First person :	I was			They were
Second person:	You were			You were
Third person	He/She/it was			They were

Future tense: All verbs form their future tense  by adding the helping verb ‘will’ to the main verb. Eg: will be, will go, will do, will have etc.

Time words and phrases: Time words and phrases are used to link a period with a verb.

Eg: for - indicating a period of time.  

I have been working for the last five hours.

Since - a point of time (usually with present perfect tense).

She has been living here since 1995.

Before- The players will be selected before May.

Till- end of a period

The library will function till 5 PM.

Ago- used with the past

She came here two years ago.

MODEL QUESTIONS

    I.      Objective questions

1.      Words that add quality to the verb are called Ans: adverbs

2.      Adjectives modify……….. Ans: nouns

3.      Words formed from the initial letters of words are called Ans: acronyms

4.      We are from Italy. We are……

Italians

II.       Short Answer Questions

1.      What are acronyms?

2.      Why do we read to exercise caution in academic writing?

3.      What is the purpose of using passive voice?

4.      What are prepositions?

5.      Which are the different types of prepositions?

6.      What are conjunctions?

III.      Short paragraph

1.      Abbreviations

2.      Modal verbs

3.      Conjunctions

4.      Prepositions

5.      Relative Pronouns

6.      Passives

7.      Articles

8.      Tenses

IV.      Essay 1. Write an essay on accuracy in writing.

MODULE 4 B - WRITING MODELS

Formal letters: These are letters that you write to people other than your friends and family such as professional organizations, institutions, or any other public bodies for official purposes. Formal letters are usually formatted in full block style with all the parts aligned to the left.

Format / parts of a formal letter:

1.      Sender’s address/ letter head: write the name and address of the persons who is sending the letter on top left of the letter.

2.      Date: Write the date on which the letter is being written or sent. The recommended format is alphanumeric as in 3 November 2011.

3.      Reference: If the letter is in any way related to any previous communication made with  the person or institution to which the letter is being sent, mention the reference number of that communication for continuity. It is usually labeled as ‘Ref:’ followed by the number.

4.      Receiver’s number (if any): Name, Address and designation of the person or organization to whom/which the letter is being sent.

5.      Subject line: Mention the purpose of the letter in one line against the label ‘Sub’.

6.      Salutation: Use ‘Dear’ or ‘Respected’ followed by the title(Dr. Professor, Mr., Ms etc.) and the surname of the receiver. If the name is unknown write ‘Dear Manager’,  ‘Dear Director’ etc.

7.      Body: Write the content of the letter.

8.      Closing: Conclude the letter with ‘yours truly’ or ‘Yours sincerely’.

9.      Signature: Sign the letter and below the signature write or print your name in upper case (capital letters).

10.  Enclosure notation: If you are sending any other documents with the letter, give a list of those documents against the label ‘Encl’.

Example:

Dr. Vinayak Raj

Chief Physician

St. Thomas Hospital

Delhi

PH: 08231473 22 June 2010

Ref: B3/005 dated 23 March 2010

Dr. Mahendra Kumar

Director

St.Thomas Hospital

Delhi

Sub: Purchase of medicines.

Dear  Dr Kumar,

I hereby submit the details regarding the medicines purchased during the month January.

Yours sincerely,

Vinayak

VINAYAK RAJ

Encl: List of medicines purchased.

Curriculum Vitae/ CV: A resume/cv/bio data/personal profile, qualification sheet/summary is a self introduction by an individual regarding his background, achievements and experience to  promote himself,  in which he highlights the qualification, experience or achievement he has for a particular position and empasizes his strengths. It should contain

1.      Personal details

2.      Education

3.      Experience

4.      References

While preparing a CV

1.      Mention those areas that need emphasis in the beginning like education or experience.

2.      Give personal details towards the end just above the reference since the employer will be more interested in education or experience than in a person’s biography. 

3.      Give the full contact details of at least two persons, who are not your friends or relatives, from whom the employer can collect details regarding the applicant. 

4.      Never write ‘no experience’ in your CV.

5.      The highest qualification should be placed first.

6.      While writing about experience, begin from the present position and then highlight other  senior positions held.

7.      The CV of a fresh graduate should be neither too long nor too brief. One page is the ideal length. Experienced candidates can prepare 2 to 3 pages.

Covering letter/Application Letter: This is an interview request written to your potential  employer, asking for action, in such away as to gain his attention and interest. It has three parts.

•      First paragraph: Identify objective or goal exactly. In this paragraph specify the job you are applying for and how you came to know about it.

•      Second paragraph: Give sufficient evidence of your ability or qualifications for the position briefly without repeating what is written in the CV.

•      Third paragraph: Ask for an interview opportunity.

A covering letter  must be brief and neatly prepared on a page of about 21cm by 29.5 cm. while preparing a Covering letter, follow the  important principles of writing such as

•      Coherence

•      Concreteness

•      Simplicity

•      Emphasis

•      Originality

•      Sincerity

•      Empathy

•      Convention

Remember the following points while preparing a covering letter

•      Don’t use the present employer’s stationery • Don’t beg or ask for favour.

•      Don’t be unduly humble.

•      Don’t write too many ‘I’, ‘me’, ‘my’.

•      Don’t sound casual.

•      Don’t boast.

•      Don’t criticize the present employer.

•      Don’t repeat CV details.

•      Don’t say that you are qualified for a post, instead give details regarding your  qualifications.

There are several styles for writing a CV.  A Chronological format is outlined below:

Job Objective; Personal Profile; Specialization; Education; Scholarships/Awards; Interests and Achievements; personal Objective; Strengths; Work Experience; References.  

Designing and Reporting Surveys: According to the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (LDOCE) a survey is a ‘set of questions that you ask a large number of people in order to find out about their opinions and behaviour.’ It helps researchers to obtain facts needed for their studies. Through surveys we can collect information regarding the actual status of a thing at the time of study. The major limitation of a survey is that its findings are valid only for the present and not for the future.

Instruments of Survey: Survey is usually done using written questionnaire and personal  interview. The major tools used in survey are questionnaires, interviews, check lists and  opinionnairs.

Questionnaire: A questionnaire is a set of questions that are written in order to collect maximum factual information from the respondents about their habits, attitudes, views, rating, liking and so on of the object under study. The questions are selected and sequenced according to the data needed. A questionnaire is usually treated as anonymous. 

Guidelines for creating Questionnaire: The language used in the questionnaire must be simple, clear and exact. 

1.       Do not ask such questions for which the respondent may be annoyed.

2.       Don’t ask contradictory questions.

3.       Avoid questions with built-in answers like ‘would you like your wages to be increased?’.

4.       Ask reasonable number of questions.

5.       Assure the respondent that the information will be treated as confidential.

6.       Ask simple questions in the beginning and then move on to the difficult ones.

7.       Enclose a brief letter explaining why a person is selected to answer the questionnaire and giving instructions regarding how to answer the questions.

8.       If the questionnaire is mailed, send a self addressed duly stamped envelope for the  respondents to send their answers.

9.       Assure the respondents that the findings of the survey will be shared with them.

10.   Mention the date of submission of the survey findings as well as the date by which they have to send their responses.

Seminar papers: According to LDOCE, a seminar is ‘a class at a university or a college for a small group of students and a teacher to study or discuss a particular topic.’. It has the following  parts:

•      Title: it must be brief and exact.

•      Your name: Below the title, write your name, class, roll number and other details.

•      Abstract: LDOCE defines an abstract as ‘a short writen statement containing only the most important ideas in a speech, article etc. The ideal length of an abstract is 200 words. It has the following details :

1.      The statement of purpose/problem

2.      Methodology 

3.      Results

4.      Conclusion

•      Text: every piece of good writing will have a proper beginning, middle and end. While writing the text remember to cite the sources used for writing. 

•      References:  document or cite all the sources used for writing the paper.

Project reports: A project report is usually submitted at the end of an academic year on a project completed in an industry or company under the supervision of a project supervisor from the  industry and a faculty from the concerned institution. This must be coherent, organized and  standardized.  A project report appears in the following order:

•      Page 1: Cover page with project title, details regarding the person doing the project and  course title. At the bottom left corner of the page write the name, designation and the  organization of your industry supervisor and the name, designation and institution of your faculty on the bottom right corner.

•      Page 2: Title page where you write the title of the project and the details regarding industry supervisor and faculty as written on the cover page.

•      Page 3: Certificate of approval signed by the faculty examiner and the project co-ordinator.

•      Page 4-5: Approval of organizational and faculty guides.

•      Page 6: Abstract stating the topic, scope, method and conclusion using about 800-1000  pages.

•      Page 7: Acknowledgment regarding the help received from various people and organizations for doing the research.

•      Page 8: Table of contents.

•      Page 9: List of figures.

•      Page 10: List of tables.

•      Page 11: List of appendices.

•      Page 12: Abbreviations.

•      Page 1: chapter 1

•      Page…Last chapter

•      Page…Reference • Page…Appendices.

Documentation: Documentation, also known as citing sources, is a writer’s indication in an accepted format that he/she has used words, ideas or information from another source or sources. It establishes the credibility of a writer. It is usually done in two styles. MLA (Modern Languages Association) format is used for languages and APA (American Psychological Association) format is used for social sciences.

MLA format of Documentation:

Single author:

In-text citation :

Write the last name of the author followed by the page number(s) in parantheses immediately after the sentence.

Eg: According to the author globalisation, has it own merits and demerits (Sen 54).

If the author’s name is already mentioned in the sentence, write only the page number.

Eg: According to Sen globalisation has it own merits and demerits (54).

While citing the same author for the second time, mention only the page number in parantheses.

End-text: Further details regarding the in-text citation is given at the end of the text in the list of works cited or references. The format for end-text citation for a single author is 

Name of the author in the reverse order. Name of the text in italics. Place of publication: name of the publisher, year of publication.

Eg: Sen, Reetha. Globalisation. New York: OUP,2006.

Books by two or three authors:

In-text: Use the last names of all the authors separated by comma followed by page number in  parantheses.

Eg: According to three critics, ‘Dickens was always an observer of detail.’ (Bentlen, Slater and Burgis 98).

End-text: In end text citation only the name of the first author is reversed. 

Eg: Bentley, Nichols, Michael Slater and Nina Burgus. The Dickens Index. New York: OUP, 2002.

More than three authors:

In-text: For more than three authors, use the last name of the first author followed by the  expression et.al. meaning ‘and others’.

Eg: As commented by several writers………… (Jones et.al. 76).

End-text: Use the name of the first author in the reverse order followed by et.al.

Eg: Jones, William. The Psychology of Love .New York: Penguin,2004.

Article in magazine:

In-text: text followed by the last name of the author and page number in parantheses.

Eg: Franklin was unpredictable (Ellis 56)

End text:  Name of the author. ‘name of the article.’ Title of the magazine. Date of  publication: Page range.

Eg: Ellis, John. ‘Franklin’s Cop-Out.’ Time. 22 june 2004:56-58.

Article in magazine (unknown author):

In-text: Name of the article and the page number in parantheses. If the title of the article is a long one, use only the first few words.

Eg: According to an essay…………..(‘The Dangerous aspects of’ 65)

End text: The Dangerous Asprcts of Global Warming.’ Newsweek.24 August 2008:65-68.

Work within an anthology (collection of works by different or the same author): 

End-text: Name of the author who is being quoted. ‘Title of his work.’ Title of the Anthology. Ed. Name of the editor. Place of publication: name of the publisher, Year: page range.

Eg: Gaines, Earnest. ‘Why I Write.’ African American Writers. Ed. Charles Winston. San Fransisco: Riverdale, 1996:23-30.

Indirect sources: If what is quoted is itself a quotation, use the short for qtd. Before citing the  indirect quote.

In-text: According to Raseka……(qtd. in Bray 56). ( Raseka’s words quoted by  Bray in his book).

End-text: Bray, Marcus. The Global Warming Crisis. England: OUP, 2007.

Rules to remember while doing documentation:

1.      Reference list is alphabetically arranged.

2.      The author’s name is written in the reverse order, i.e. last name first followed by the first name. Name of additional authors are not reversed.

3.      Use hanging indent.

4.      Name of the books, magazines, newspapers etc. are italicized and the important words are capitalized.

5.      Titles of articles are enclosed within single quotees.

6.      While citing a journal, the issue number and the volume number must be included. Year of publication appears in parantheses followed by a colon and page range.

7.      While citing electronic sources, the date assigned in the source and the last date of access must be included.

Electronic and non print sources

End-text: ‘Title of the text.’ Detailes of original publication with date. Date of last access<URL>. (Uniform Resource Locator)

Eg: ‘Planning Trips Through the Net.’ Times. 23 April2003. 12 June 2003< http://www.iatimestravel.com>.

E-mail: 

End-Text: Author’s name. ‘Subject line if available. ’E-mail to….. .Date of message.

Eg: Jamison, Dr,Anne. ‘Answers to Backpain.’ E-mail to John.1 July 2010.

Material from CD-ROM:

End-Text: Name of the author. ‘Title.’ Title of the CD-ROM. Place of publication: Name of the publisher, year.

Eg: Netherland, Clarissa. ‘Union issues on 23 Campuses.’ EPSO Host.CD-ROM. Los  Angeles:OUP,2003.

Personal interview:

End-Text: Name . Personal interview. date.

Eg: Saigussa, Hironi. Personal interview.24June2003.

Film or video: 

End-Text: Name of the Film. Dir. Name of the director.Perf. name of the performers. Name of the production company, Year.

Eg: Mr Smith Goes to Washington.Dir.Frank Capra. Perf.James Stewart, Claude Raines.MGM, 1946.

MODEL QUESTIONS

    I.      Objective Questions

1.      A formal letter is written for ……………purpose.

Ans: official purpose.

2.      ………….is a self introduction by an individual. Ans: CV

3.      Questionnaire is tool used in …………. Ans: Survey

4.      The format followed for documentation in the case of languages is………. Ans: MLA

5.      …………..is an interview request.

Ans: Covering letter.

II.       Short  answer questions

1.      What is a CV?

2.      What is a covering letter?

3.      Define seminar.

4.      What is survey?

5.      What is questionnaire?

6.      What is documentation?

7.      What is a project report?

8.      What are the tools used for survey?

III.      Short paragraph

1.      Guidelines for creating questionnaire.

2.      Parts of a formal letter.

3.      CV

4.      Principles of writing covering letter.

IV.      Essay

1. Documentation.

 

MODULE 5

Module 5

Objectives:  this module will help the student

        (i)      Give the students guidelines for effective presentations.

SOFT SKILLS FOR ACADEMIC PRESENTATION. 

Academic presentations are of great importance in our day to day life. Different types of topics demand different types of presentation. To make effective presentation we need to acquire certain soft skill that include an awareness regarding our audience, the use of proper language, the use of visual aids as well as time management.

AUDIENCE

This is the key to begin a presentation. The method of presentation depends on the audience whom you are going to face.

Primary audience

Primary audience are those who listen to you directly when you make presentation. They are your formal audience whose age, culture, education, and economics decide the nature of your  presentation. They carry your message to a larger group.

Secondary audience

Secondary audience are the opinion leaders and decision makers. Through your primary audience your ideas reach your secondary audience. Opinion leaders are responsible for the political, cultural or religious opinion of your primary audience. For example in the case of a business  presentation, they can be the directors of a company. Decision makers are people to whom your presentation is going to reach based on which they decide whether to accept your ideas or not. Your friends and family who help you design your presentation are also your secondary audience. 

THE OBJECTIVE OF PRESENTATION 

To decide the suitable presentation method, you need to identify the purpose or objective of your presentation, whether it is to persuade or to inform. Academic presentations are usually a  combination of both. Before you start your presentation, consider the following points.

1.  Language: Use a language appropriate to reveal your idea

2.  Trimming the presentation: Delete unnecessary information.

3.  Ice breaking: An ice breaking session where you collect information about your audience and establish a rapport through some group activity will help you to identify your objective.

4.  Choosing the appropriate medium: Based on your objective, you can choose any of the  following medium

             Hand outs: They help to explain complex theoretical issues as well as to provide source materials.

             Working activities: It helps you to make your presentation interactive by making people do things.

              Video presentation: when addressing global audiences spread across different parts of the world video conferencing is the best medium. While doing this, try to make your presentation interesting by using slides, visual aids, video clips etc.

TECHNIQUES OF EFFECTIVE PRESENTATION: 

1.    Surprise and grab attention in the beginning: begin your presentation in such a way as to grab the attention of your audience. You can begin with an interesting quote or a surprising fact. Using a surprising fact as an opening line is called Von Restorff effect.

2.    Repetition: Repeat your main ideas to remind your audience of its importance.

3.    Summarizing: Keep summarizing each part of the presentation so as to link it with the  following parts and try to draw the audience attention to the important section by using attention drawing expressions like the main idea is, in the other words etc.

4.    Effective conclusion: Conclude your presentation effectively by using quotations, summaries, or by asking questions. 

STRUCTURING THE PRESENTATION: The most appropriate structure for any presentation is that of listing the main ideas and then elaborating the points. A logical ordering of the different parts of your presentation is an essential aspect of any presentation. For example, a presentation of 30 minutes can be logically structured as follows. 

1.                  Introduction 3 minutes: Begin the presentation by stating the main idea to help the audience know the subject of presentation.

2.                  Main body 15 minutes: Here you elaborate your main idea by presenting the finding of your survey and your data analysis to convince them. 

3.                  Conclusion 2 minutes: Here you conclude by giving a summary or by emphasising the main argument of your presentation.

4.                  Questions and answers 10 minutes: This part is meant for audience interaction where you  invite questions and suggestions from your audience and try to answer their doubts seriously and honestly.

VISUAL PRESENTATION AIDS : Visual presentation is useful where you want to: 

1.  Present statistical and numerical data

2.  Present diagrams or topics related to arts, design or any subject which involves display of material.

3.  Present or introduce a new data or plan

4.  Present comparison of facts and figures in graphic or diagrammatic form.

5.  Present new interpretation of old data.

ADVANTAGES OF VISUAL AIDS

1.      Seeing things improves ones understanding of those things.

2.      We respond easily to what we see.

3.      It will promote the interest and attention of the audience.

4.A lot of information can be presented within a short time using visual aids.

5.It saves time.

6.It increases the effectiveness of the presentation. How to Use Visual Aids:

1.      Do not use too many visuals.

2.      Use one visual for one main point.

3.      Prepare the visuals in bold and clear letter so that it can be seen by persons sitting at the back.

4.      Do not use too many words on a single slide.

5.      Write single words or short phrases on the slide.

6.      Use various colours to highlight various points.

7.      Try the method of revealing one point at a time if you have written more than one point on the slide.

8.      Number the slides and rehearse the presentation to avoid confusion.

9.      While showing the visual aids explain their purpose and content.

10.  Keep it displayed for a sufficient period of time for the audience to read and note it down.

Different kinds of visual aids:

1.      Boards: A board is a primary aid used in classrooms. It can be either black or white. While writing on the board, it is better to divide it into parts for writing down points, for doing calculations as well as for drawing figures. The writing must be bold and clear. Clean the board when you end the presentation.

2.      Flip chart: While making presentations for a small group of 15 to 20 people, you can use a flip chart which is a large pad of paper on a stand. Advantages of using flip chart are:

a.      They can be prepared in advance for presenting diagrams, graphs or charts.

b.      They can be used for prompting you. You can write the main points faintly in pencil and use it during the presentation.

c.      It can be used for creating, presenting and recording audience’s feedback at the end of the presentation.

d.      Flip chart, which can be written using water soluble ink can be used repeatedly.

3. Overhead projectors (OHP): This is the most commonly used visual aid. This can be used while speaking to the audience with a prepared transparency of bright, large and colourful image projected on the screen. It is better to use a transparency with neatly and clearly typed matter.

How to prepare transparencies:

1.      Make it clear and visible.

2.      Write one point on one transparency.

3.      Do not include too many points or diagrams on a single transparency.

4.      Write a maximum of eight lines of six words (48 words) on a single transparency.

5.      Use different bulletins to make main points and the sub points.

6.      Place the information at the centre.

Points for using OHP

1.      Check that the projector switches are working.

2.      The projector lens and the projection surface must be clean.

3.      Adjust the focus to get the brightest and the largest image.

4.      Switch off the projectors between the visuals.

5.      Keep the fan inside the projector on while showing the visuals.

6.      Use a pointer or a pen or pencil to point to the transparency. 

7.      Unfold the points one by one.

8.      Look at your audience while making presentations.

4.      Power point projections: With the advent of computers, the OHPs are being replaced by power point presentations in which images and information are projected using a multimedia projector. In this entire presentation is prepared in the form of a floppy disc or prepared  directly in a laptop and is projected using an LCD projector. While making power point presentations, ensure that the place where you are going to present has enough size, ventilation and seating arrangement.

• Clarity and persuasion: To make your presentations clear 

1.     You must understand your topic well.

2.     Use simple and appropriate language.

3.     Establish a friendly relation with your audience.

4.     Structure your presentation properly.

5.     Use examples and illustrations that can be understood by the audience.

6.     Use audio visual aids effectively.

• To make your  presentation persuasive

1.      Use clear and accurate statement of the topic.

2.      Give logical explanatios.

3.      Give only the relevant details.

4.      Try to appeal to the audience’s emotions.

5.      Give real life examples.

Non verbal communication: While making presentations, it is important to consider how you present yourself in front of the audience. Non verbal communication (communication without  using language, such as body language, expressions, actions etc.) is equally important. Hence give attention to the following aspects while making presentations:

1.      Your appearance.

2.      Maintain positive posture.

3.      Maintain eye contact.

4.      Use positive gestures(actions) and hand movements.

5.      Do not stand fixed. Move between the screen and the audience.

6.      Smile and be relaxed while answering the questions.

Guidelines for Effective Presentation: 

1.       Tryto involve your audience in the presentation and encourage their participation.

2.       Prepare and perform well and be confident.

3.       Don’t speak in a low feeble voice.

4.       Don’t shout, which will make you sound angry.

5.       Maintain eye  contact to arouse audience interest.

6.       Be simple and clear.

7.       Ask interesting questions to the audience.

8.       Invite volunteers from audience for role play.

9.       Stand close to the audience so that you are fully visible to them.

10.   Avoid stage fright. 11. Visualize the successful end of your presentation.

Opening and closing:

Opening: This is a very important stage of the presentation. While beginning your presentation, try to arouse the interest of your audience within 30 to 40 sec. You can do this by doing the following:

1.      Have a pleasant expression on your face.

2.      Maintain a positive and confident posture.

3.      Ask questions to the audience.

4.      Narrate an incident that will arouse their curiosity.

5.      Use stories or interesting statistics.

Closing: While closing the presentation 1. Give s summary of the presentation.

2.      End it positively.

3.      Call for action.

Time Management: Time management is very important for the success of any presentation. To observe the time limit strictly

1.      Plan and organize the presentation properly.

2.      Try to limit the speed of your presentation between 110 to 120 words per minute.

3.      Give equal importance to the discussion and the solution of the problem.

4.      Time should be given to the audience to ask questions or to give their suggestions to make them feel that they are the active participants of the presentation.

5.      Organize the arguments well in advance.

6.      Make swift transitions.

7.      Make an impressive introduction.

8.      Be objective. 

MODEL QUESTIONS

    I.      Objective questions

1.      ………………becomes the key to the beginning of presentation.  Ans: The audience.

2.      The formal audience of presentation are refered to as  Ans: The primary audience

3.      The decision makers of a presentation are……………  Ans: The secondary audience

4.      The part of a presentation in which you gather information regarding your audience is Ans: ice breaking session.

5.      ………………is the appropriate medium for addressing a global audience. Ans: Video presentation.

6.      Beginning a presentation with a surprising fact is called……………. Ans: Von Restorff effect.

7.      ……………..is aprimary visual aid used in classrooms.

Ans: Board.

II.       Short Answer Questions

1.      Who are the primary audience of a presentation?

2.      Who are the decision makers of a presentation?

3.      Who are the opinion leaders of a presentation?

4.      What are the main objectives of a presentation?

5.      Which are the important visual aids used for presentation?

III.      Short Paragraph

1.      Audience

2.      Techniques of effective presentation

3.      How do you choose the appropriate medium for the presentation?

4.      How do you structure a presentation?

5.      Advantages of using visual aids

6.      Clarity and persuasion in presentation

7.      Nonverbal communication

8.      Time management

IV.      Essay

1.      Write an essay on the various visual aids used for presentation.

2.      Write an essay on the various soft skills needed for effective presentation.

Reference

1. Anderson, Marilyn, Pramod K. Nayar and Maducchanda Sen. Critical Thinking,  Academic Writing and Presentation Skills. India: pearson, 2010.